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134-529: The Mississippi Renewal Forum was organized by Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour ’s Commission on Recovery, Rebuilding and Renewal, in coordination with the Congress for the New Urbanism and Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company . Participants included 140 architects and planners from across the country, as well as more than 50 local planners and officials. The week-long charrette – considered by some to be

268-873: A Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum of two or three years of study toward a bachelor's degree and scored well on the North American Law School Admission Test . Notwithstanding the formal requirements, nearly all successful applicants have completed undergraduate degrees before admission to a JD program. The JD in Canada is considered to be a bachelor's degree qualification. All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses, including public law, property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law and legal research and writing. Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection

402-429: A bar examination , except from the state of Wisconsin. United States Patent and Trademark Office also involves a specialized " Patent Bar " which requires applicants to hold a bachelor's degree or the equivalent in certain scientific or engineering fields alongside their Juris Doctor degree in order to practice in patent cases —prosecuting patent applications — before it. This additional requirement does not apply to

536-600: A Clyde Kennard Day, calling for remembrance of Kennard's "determination, the injustices he suffered, and his significant role in the history of the civil rights movement in Mississippi". Barbour subsequently joined in a petition for a court rehearing of the case that resulted in the original conviction being thrown out. Barbour proved instrumental in winning state legislative support for the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum . Legislation to fund

670-514: A JD, graduates must pass a bar examination to be licensed to practice law. The American Bar Association does not allow an accredited JD degree to be issued in less than two years of law school studies. In the United States, the JD has the academic standing of a professional doctorate (in contrast to a research doctorate ), and is described as a "doctor's degree – professional practice" by

804-508: A bachelor's degree as a pre-requisite for virtually all students entering law school, it became a bachelor's degree in name only. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the United States, but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the MD and the JD, are just as different from their European counterparts as

938-486: A bachelor's degree for law could be due to the fact that admittance to most nineteenth-century American law schools required only satisfactory completion of high school. The degree was nevertheless somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a degree in England, where it was necessary to gain a general BA prior to an LLB or BCL until

1072-479: A biofuels plant." Through his entire terms, Barbour's Commissioner of Corrections was Chris Epps , who had been appointed on August 30, 2002 by Democratic Governor Ronnie Musgrove. Republican governors Barbour and Phil Bryant reappointed Epps on January 13, 2004 and January 11, 2012, respectively. On November 6, 2014, it was revealed by federal prosecutors in the FBI's Operation Mississippi Hustle sting that Epps and

1206-419: A confederate, former Republican state House member Cecil McCrory , had taken bribes from many for-profit prison operators, consultants, vendors and subcontractors for other prisoner services. The amounts Epps personally received were estimated to be at least $ 1.47 million in bribes for steering what Assistant US Attorney LaMarca estimated was $ 800 million in contracts between 2006 and 2014. Epps cooperated with

1340-515: A consequence of the need for practical education in law, the apprenticeship program for solicitors emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades. The training of solicitors by a five-year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728. William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at

1474-423: A conservative Democrat, despite an endorsement by President Ronald Reagan . During the campaign, The New York Times reported that a Barbour aide complained about " coons " at a campaign event. Barbour, embarrassed that the comment was overheard by a reporter, told the aide that he would be "reincarnated as a watermelon and placed at the mercy of blacks" if he continued making racist comments. As of 2023, Barbour

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1608-597: A degree. Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop. At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LLB degree. The decision to award

1742-557: A federal district judge. Barbour soon became prominent within the Republican party running Gerald Ford 's 1976 presidential campaign in the Southeast. He also worked on the campaign of former Texas governor John Connally , who had become a Republican, for president in 1980. In 1982 Barbour was the Republican nominee for the U.S. Senate election in Mississippi , but was defeated 64% to 36% by longtime incumbent John C. Stennis ,

1876-457: A former Bush administration appointee) joined the firm. In 1998, Fortune magazine named Barbour Griffith & Rogers as the second-most-powerful lobbying firm in America. In 2001, after the inauguration of George W. Bush , Fortune called it the most powerful. The firm "is employed by several foreign countries, as well as oil and cigarette companies". Its role in advocating on behalf of

2010-514: A graduate JD one. An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. The course varies across different universities, though all are obliged to teach the Priestley 11 subjects per the requirements of state admissions boards in Australia. JDs are considered equivalent to LLBs, and graduates must meet the same requirements to qualify, including undergoing

2144-402: A great change in United States university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting. United States Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard, when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in

2278-410: A more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. Over the same period, American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented, so that in 1996 Langbein could write: "That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for

2412-576: A posthumous pardon in the closing days of his administration. His brother Jeptha Fowlkes Barbour III was elected mayor of Yazoo City in 1968 as an independent and served until 1972. He enrolled at the University of Mississippi School of Law , receiving a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1972. Subsequently, Barbour joined his father's old law firm in Yazoo City. He was also a law partner of his cousin, William H. Barbour Jr. , who later became

2546-576: A practical training. On the Australian Qualifications Framework , the Juris Doctor is classified as a "masters degree (extended)", with an exception having been granted to use the term "doctor" in the title (other such exceptions include Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine). It may not be described as a doctoral degree and holders may not use the title "doctor". The JD degree

2680-462: A profession open only to the elite in England, as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England. Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England. A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730 — at that time a seven-year clerkship

2814-461: A proposed recognition of Confederate History Month . Barbour replied, "To me, it's a sort of feeling that it's a nit, that it is not significant, that it's not a—it's trying to make a big deal out of something doesn't amount to diddly." Barbour continued, "I don't know what you would say about slavery ... but anybody that thinks that you have to explain to people that slavery is a bad thing, I think that goes without saying." In December 2010, Barbour

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2948-430: A rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell . In the words of Dorsey Ellis, " Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists. ' " Nonetheless, into the year 1900, most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship

3082-424: A school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law. The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education. In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began

3216-492: A second degree. Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The change from LLB to JD was intended to end "this discrimination, the practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree". The JD was proposed as the equivalent of the German J.U.D., to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer. The University of Chicago Law School

3350-715: A state museum had been introduced every year since 2000, but died for various reasons. In November 2006, Barbour proposed creating a state commission to develop plans for the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum. In his "State of the State" address on January 16, 2007, Barbour said the museum was "overdue, and it needs doing", The proposal won legislative approval, and a site for the museum was selected in March 2008. The project then stalled for three years, however, with museum backers listing lack of direction from

3484-554: A state that now has model legislation," commented Charlie Ross , the chair of the Mississippi Senate 's Judiciary Committee. The effectiveness of Barbour's tort reform efforts has been questioned. According to conservative journalist Timothy Carney, he "touts job growth down in Mississippi under his governing, and some of that is due to tort reform, but some of it is due to rank favoritism and special-interest deals more akin to Obama than Reagan — for instance, subsidies for

3618-530: A substantial contribution to the field over many years – a standard of professional experience beyond that required for a Doctor of Philosophy . In the United States, the LLD is invariably an honorary degree. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna , was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. This served as

3752-556: A thesis in their third year of law school. Because the JD degree was no more advantageous for bar admissions or for employment, the vast majority of Marquette students preferred to seek the LLB degree. As more law students entered law schools with previously awarded bachelor's degree degrees in the 1950s and 1960s, a number of law schools may have introduced the JD to encourage law students to complete their undergraduate degrees. As late as 1961, there were still 15 ABA-accredited law schools in

3886-433: A university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship. The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and elements of a liberal education. The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard, and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement

4020-458: A wealthy K Street lobbyist for giant corporations such as RJ Reynolds , Philip Morris , Amgen , Microsoft , United Health , Southern Company , and many others." In 1991, Barbour helped found the lobbying group now known as BGR Group , a Washington, D.C. -based lobbying firm, with Ed Rogers, a lawyer who formerly worked in the George H. W. Bush administration . In 1994, Lanny Griffith (also

4154-507: Is a graduate-entry professional degree that primarily prepares individuals to practice law . In the United States , it is the only qualifying law degree. Other jurisdictions, such as Australia , Canada , and Hong Kong , offer both the postgraduate JD degree as well as the undergraduate LL.B. , BCL , or other qualifying law degree depending on the requirements of the jurisdiction where the person will practice law. Originating in

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4288-798: Is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resources law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law and Aboriginal law. After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination and a period of supervised articling prior to independent practice. United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically. Likewise, United States JD graduates are not automatically recognized in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario. To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of

4422-463: Is still in shock. It was an act of betrayal. He has bruised the image of Mississippi and given joy to many of the inmates he’s overseen who can now say the head of the state prison system was just as corrupt as any of them." He sentenced Epps to over 19 years in federal prison. On February 8, 2017, Mississippi Attorney General Jim Hood , a Democrat, announced he had filed civil cases against 15 corporations and individuals who had engaged in contracts with

4556-490: Is the dominant common-law law degree in Canada, having replaced many of the nation's former LLB programs. Unlike other jurisdictions, the Canadian LLB was historically typically second-entry undergraduate degree that required the prior completion of another undergraduate degree. The University of Toronto became the first law school to rename its law degree in 2001. As with the second-entry LLB, in order to be admitted to

4690-600: Is the last Republican to have lost a Senate election in Mississippi. Barbour later served as a political aide in the Reagan Administration and worked on the 1988 presidential campaign of George H. W. Bush . Before being elected governor of Mississippi, Barbour "had a long career on the national stage" and was "well-known as a Republican operative since the Reagan years". Barbour has been described as "one of Washington 's all-time mega- lobbyists ". He "was

4824-612: The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , the state's two most damaging environmental disasters since the 1927 Mississippi River floods . Barbour was expected to be a candidate for president in 2012 , but announced he would not run in April 2011. Since retiring as governor, Barbour has resumed lobbying as a senior partner at BGR Group , which he co-founded in 1991. He has been described as "one of Washington's all-time mega-lobbyists". His clients have often included foreign governments, oil, and tobacco companies . Barbour currently co-chairs

4958-511: The Inns of Court . The 1728 act was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of the required apprenticeship to three years for graduates in either law or arts from Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, as "the admission of such graduates should be facilitated, in consideration of the learning and abilities requisite for taking such degree". This was extended in 1837 to cover the newly established universities of Durham and London, and again in 1851 to include

5092-752: The Republican National Committee (RNC). In 1994, during his tenure as RNC chair, Republicans captured both houses of the United States Congress , taking the House of Representatives for the first time in 40 years. In 1997, Barbour retired from his position as chairman of the RNC. After two decades in Washington, D.C., Barbour announced his intention to run for governor of Mississippi in 2003. On August 5, 2003, Barbour won

5226-580: The Socratic method (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate, high-level law degree was proposed: the Juris Doctor, implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach. According to professor J. H. Beale , an 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvard's four professional schools – theology, law, medicine, and arts and sciences – were all graduate schools, and their degrees were therefore

5360-675: The White Citizens' Council movement in reaction to the demands for racial integration by the Civil Rights Movement . The Blackhawk rally was hosted by the Council of Conservative Citizens (CCC). A photograph of Barbour with CCC members appeared on the CCC webpage, and some commentators and pundits demanded that Barbour ask for his picture to be removed from the site, but Barbour refused. Barbour stated that "Once you start down

5494-495: The common law that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court , but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation. However, because of the lack of standardization of study, and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships,

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5628-517: The 1970s and 1980s, and he is often credited with building significant Republican infrastructure in Mississippi during an era when it was still dominated by Southern Democrats . He was the Republican nominee for U.S. Senate in 1982 , but lost to incumbent Democrat John C. Stennis . In 2003, Barbour became the second Republican governor of Mississippi since Reconstruction when he defeated Democratic incumbent Ronnie Musgrove . As governor he oversaw his state's responses to Hurricane Katrina and

5762-432: The 19th century. At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary. Nonetheless, there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through

5896-438: The 2005 budget drastically reduced coverage for 65,000 individuals classified as Poverty-Level Aged and Disabled (PLAD), most of whom qualified for the federal Medicare program, and also significantly limited prescription drug coverage. However, the same budget increased the percentage of Medicaid prescriptions that are for generic drugs. In 2005, the state was budgeted to spend a total of $ 130 million less on Medicaid than in

6030-522: The 2008 fiscal year budget, for the first time since its enactment in 1997, the state fully funded the Mississippi Adequate Education Program. Building on a 2002 tort reform bill passed by his predecessor, Barbour also introduced a new tort reform measure that has been described as one of the strictest in the nation. Barbour rarely made a speech during his gubernatorial campaign without mentioning this subject and

6164-543: The 63rd governor of Mississippi from 2004 to 2012. A member of the Republican Party , he previously served as chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1993 to 1997. Born in Yazoo City, Mississippi , Barbour graduated from the University of Mississippi with undergraduate and law degrees, where he was a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. Barbour was an active Republican operative during

6298-570: The BA was not required (although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms). These degrees specialized in Roman civil law rather than in English common law, the latter being the domain of the Inns of Court, and thus they were more theoretical than practically useful. Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside

6432-581: The BA, and the London LLB, which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA, become an undergraduate degree in 1866. The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today, which is a master's level program, while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982. Between the 1960s and the 1990s, law schools in England took on

6566-463: The Bar unanimously adopted a resolution recommending to all approved law schools that they give favorable consideration to the conferring of the JD degree as the first professional degree, in 1962 and 1963. By the 1960s, most law students were college graduates having previously obtained a bachelor's degree, and by the end of that decade, almost all were required to be. Student and alumni support were key in

6700-749: The Branan Medical Corporation; On May 18, 2017, Hood announced that the state had quickly settled the first suit for two million dollars. The defendant was Alere Incorporated, which had purchased the Branan Medical Corporation. Ten lawsuits in bribery schemes remained pending. Those have accused at least 10 individuals and 11 out-of-state corporations of using so-called "consultants" to gain more than $ 800 million in Mississippi prison contracts. On January 24, 2019, Hood announced his actions had recovered $ 27 million from those vendors against which he had filed suits. Management and Training Corporation paid $ 5.2 million. GEO Group paid $ 4.6 million, with

6834-590: The DUI killing of Charity Smith. On January 11, a Mississippi judge temporarily blocked the release of 21 inmates who had been given pardons or medical release. Attorney General Jim Hood argued the Mississippi Constitution says any inmate seeking a pardon must publish their intentions at least 30 days prior to the hearing in a newspaper in or near the county where the person was convicted. Hood also criticized Barbour for failing to notify or speak with

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6968-449: The English universities. The nature of the JD can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law. The universities only taught civil and canon law (used in a very few jurisdictions, such as the courts of admiralty and church courts) but not

7102-614: The Immigration Task Force at the Bipartisan Policy Center . Barbour was born in Yazoo City, Mississippi, where he was raised as the youngest of three sons of Grace LeFlore (née Johnson) and Jeptha Fowlkes Barbour, Jr. Haley's father, a lawyer, died when Barbour was two years old. Barbour's father was a Circuit Judge who had an inmate, Leon Turner, assist him after Judge Barbour became ill. As governor, Haley later gave Turner, who had helped raise him,

7236-468: The Inns of Court was a mix of moot court -like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university, akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge , though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades , the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and

7370-400: The Inns of Court. Even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, the LLB eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. In England and Wales the LLB is an undergraduate scholarly program and although it (assuming it is a qualifying law degree) fulfills

7504-473: The JD and once again granting only the LLB, with only law schools in Illinois holding out. This changed in the 1960s, by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates. The JD was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LLB, with many schools offering a JD as a replacement to their LLB alumni. Canadian and Australian universities have had graduate-entry law programs that are very similar to

7638-448: The JD is a doctoral degree in the US, lawyers usually use the suffix " Esq. " as opposed to the prefix "Dr.", and that only in a professional context, when needed to alert others that they are a biased party – acting as an agent for their client. An initial attempt to rename the LLB to the JD in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but

7772-455: The JD programs in the United States, but typically called the LLB. Some students at these universities advocated for the renaming of the graduate-entry LLB to the JD to recognise the graduate characteristics of the program and to obtain a so-called doctoral-level qualification. The traditional law degree in Australia is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws ( LLB ). Beginning in the 2010s, many Australian universities now offer JD programs, including

7906-456: The JD which have been implemented around the world. As stated by Hall and Langdell, who were involved in the creation of the JD, the JD is a professional degree like the MD , intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the casebook and Socratic methods). This system of curriculum has existed in

8040-595: The KKK, and referred to the Councils as "an organization of town leaders". Barbour continued in his defense of the Councils, saying, "In Yazoo City they passed a resolution that said anybody who started a chapter of the Klan would get their ass run out of town. If you had a job, you'd lose it. If you had a store, they'd see nobody shopped there. We didn't have a problem with the Klan in Yazoo City." Barbour's statement did not address

8174-454: The LLB although in some, including Oxford and Cambridge, it is the BA in law. Both of these can be taken with "senior status" in two years by those already holding an undergraduate degree in another discipline. A few universities offer "exempting" degrees, usually integrated master's degrees denominated Master in Law (MLaw), that combine the qualifying law degree with the legal practice course or

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8308-418: The LLB programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study", which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics. An LLB, or a Bachelor of Laws, recognized that a prior bachelor's degree was not required to earn an LLB. In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing

8442-597: The LLB-to-JD change, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale (last) in 1971. Nonetheless, the LLB at Yale retained the didactical changes of the "practitioners' courses" of 1826, and was very different from the LLB in common law countries, other than Canada. Following standard modern academic practice, Harvard Law School refers to its Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees as its graduate level law degrees. Similarly, Columbia refers to

8576-475: The LLM and the JSD as its graduate program. Yale Law School lists its LLM, MSL, JSD, and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs. A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees at some universities in the United States. The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such as the United States. Originally, common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in

8710-488: The Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence" – Jurisprudentiae Doctor – literally means "teacher of legal knowledge". The JD is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD). In institutions where the latter can be earned, e.g., Cambridge University (where it is titled "Doctor of Law", though still retaining the abbreviation LLD) and many other British institutions, it is a higher research doctorate, representing

8844-485: The MDOC and Epps, seeking damages and punitive damages. He stated, "The state of Mississippi has been defrauded through a pattern of bribery, kickbacks, misrepresentations, fraud, concealment, money laundering and other wrongful conduct." He continued, "These individuals and corporations that benefited by stealing from taxpayers must not only pay the state's losses, but state law requires that they must also forfeit and return

8978-481: The Midwest. After the 1930s, the LLB and the JD degrees co‑existed in some American law schools. Some law schools, especially in Illinois and the Midwest, awarded both (like Marquette University, beginning in 1926), conferring JD degrees only to those with a bachelor's degree (as opposed to two or three years of college before law school), and those who met a higher academic standard in undergraduate studies, finishing

9112-585: The Republican gubernatorial primary over Canton trial attorney Mitch Tyner. Barbour's campaign manager was his nephew Henry Barbour. During the campaign, a controversy arose when Barbour chose to speak at the Blackhawk Rally, a fundraiser for the Blackhawk "council school" in Blackhawk, Mississippi . Such "council schools", also referred to in Mississippi lexicon as " academies ", were established by

9246-803: The Texas Republican gubernatorial nomination. On March 3, 2010, Barbour and his wife participated in events with First Lady Michelle Obama , promoting the Let's Move! anti-obesity campaign. In March 2011, Barbour drew criticism for his role in allowing the release of a convicted killer eight years into a 20-year sentence. In prior years, Barbour had used his powers as governor to release five other killers. On his last day as governor in 2012, Barbour granted pardons, clemency, or early release to 203 people convicted of crimes, including murder, rape and armed robbery. Barbour's actions included 19 people convicted of murder. Pardons by governors are not uncommon;

9380-487: The United States Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics . In Australia, South Korea, and Hong Kong, it has the academic standing of a master's degree , while in Canada, it is considered a second-entry bachelor's degree . To be fully authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a JD degree must pass

9514-411: The United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the origination of the JD, law students began law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor's degree. The LLB persisted through the middle of the 20th century, which by then turned into a postgraduate degree requiring the previous completion of

9648-426: The United States for over 100 years. The JD program generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry, though this requirement is sometimes waived. As a study of the substantive law and its professional applications, the JD curriculum has not changed substantially since its creation. As a professional degree, JD programs typically allow practitioners. It requires at least three academic years of full-time study. While

9782-564: The United States in the late 19th century, the JD is the most common law degree in the country. The degree generally requires three years of full-time study to complete and is conferred upon students who have successfully completed coursework and practical training in legal studies. The JD curriculum typically includes fundamental legal subjects such as constitutional law, civil procedure, criminal law, contracts, property, and torts, along with opportunities for specialization in areas like international law, corporate law, or public policy. Upon receiving

9916-497: The United States which awarded both LLB and JD degrees. Thirteen of the 15 were located in the Midwest, which may indicate regional variations in the United States. It was only after 1962 that a new push — this time begun at less-prominent law schools — successfully led to the universal adoption of the JD as the first law degree. The turning point appears to have occurred when the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to

10050-441: The United States, William Livingston , in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought-after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys, who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law. In time,

10184-465: The United States, such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, Cicero , Seneca , Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius . It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers. At

10318-401: The United States. The historian Robert Stevens wrote that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one — and not at the undergraduate level, but through a three-year post baccalaureate degree." This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that Langdell had developed, known as the case method (a method of studying landmark cases) and

10452-459: The University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature. Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure provided by apprenticeship and

10586-558: The academic requirements for becoming a lawyer, further vocational and professional training as either a barrister (the Bar Professional Training Course followed by pupillage ) or as a solicitor (the Legal Practice Course followed by a " period of recognised training " ) is required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction. The qualifying law degree in most English universities is

10720-438: The apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs. The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners. The establishment of formal faculties of law in United States universities did not occur until

10854-609: The ballot laws. In April 2009, Barbour joined a conservative policy group to discuss Republican policies in town hall meetings. The group also included former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney , former Florida Governor Jeb Bush , Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal , and Senator John McCain . On June 24, 2009, Barbour assumed the chairmanship of the Republican Governors Association , succeeding South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford . On October 29, 2009, Barbour endorsed Texas Governor Rick Perry for

10988-456: The bar professional training course in a four-year, undergraduate-entry program. Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership, and, since 1889,

11122-693: The beginning of his re-election campaign at a series of meetings across the state on February 12, 2007. During his campaign, Barbour signed the Americans for Tax Reform " Taxpayer Protection Pledge " and vowed not to institute any new taxes or raise any existing ones. Barbour defeated Frederick Jones in the Republican primary on August 7 and Democrat John Arthur Eaves Jr. in the November general election. Barbour has faced considerable "in-state criticism for his approach to racial issues". Mississippi state Representative Willie Perkins has "compared Barbour to

11256-406: The border, some pairs of law schools have developed joint Canadian-American JD programs. As of 2018, these include a three-year program conducted concurrently at the University of Windsor and the University of Detroit Mercy, as well as a four-year program with the University of Ottawa and either Michigan State University or American University in which students spend two years studying on each side of

11390-427: The border. Previously, New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School offered a similar program, but this has since been terminated. Two notable exceptions are Université de Montréal and Université de Sherbrooke , which both offer a one-year JD program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New York. York University offered

11524-469: The century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. Until the mid nineteenth century, most law degrees in England (the BCL at Oxford and Durham, and the LLB at London) were postgraduate degrees, taken after an initial degree in arts. The Cambridge degree, variously referred to as a BCL, BL or LLB, was an exception: it took six years from matriculation to complete, but only three of these had to be in residence, and

11658-413: The changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring previous college education before studying law. Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given; therefore, law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic. This has proven true in the context of the various forms of

11792-427: The coast back like it can be, rather than simply like it was." Barbour has been accused by Bloomberg News of personally profiting from Hurricane Katrina recovery. Barbour is an owner of the parent company of lobbying firm Barbour Griffith & Rogers Inc., and he receives a pension and profit-sharing plan benefits from it. The lobbying firm has lobbied the state to give recovery contracts to its clients. Some of

11926-529: The controversy surrounding his Weekly Standard interview. Jamie Scott suffered from kidney failure while in prison, and requires a donated organ , which her sister Gladys had volunteered to provide. Barbour's decision to release the Scott sisters, however, was contingent upon her consent for the promised organ donation by Gladys Scott, which critics argued amounted to coercion and raises questions of medical ethics . The sisters were released in 2011, but by 2018

12060-404: The country attended the event, and the forum received coverage by The New York Times, USA Today, and The Chicago Tribune, amongst other local and national periodicals. This Mississippi -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Haley Barbour Haley Reeves Barbour (born October 22, 1947) is an American attorney, politician, and lobbyist who served as

12194-548: The country's best ranked universities (e.g. the University of New South Wales , the University of Sydney , the Australian National University , the University of Melbourne , Monash University , and Western Sydney University ). Generally, universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB, although at some universities, only the graduate-entry JD is offered. The University of Melbourne, for example, has phased out its undergraduate LLB program for

12328-469: The degree. Harvard, for example, refused to adopt the JD degree, even though it restricted admission to students with college degrees in 1909. Indeed, pressure from eastern law schools led almost every law school (except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illinois ) to abandon the JD and re‑adopt the LLB as the first law degree by the 1930s. By 1962, the JD degree was rarely seen outside

12462-541: The demand for lawyers grew. Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of academic study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law (the two "laws" in the original Bachelor of Laws, which thus became the Bachelor of Civil Law when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation) and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. As

12596-555: The educational approaches differ. Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807, but at the time, the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing, and the status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous and so the professional law degree took more time to develop. Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer

12730-557: The entire amount of the contracts paid by the state. We are also seeking punitive damages to punish these conspirators and to deter those who might consider giving or receiving kickbacks in the future." Defendants in the bribery cases included Management & Training Corporation ; The GEO Group , Inc.; Cornell Companies , Inc.; Wexford Health Sources , Inc.; Global Tel*Link Corporation; Health Assurance, LLC; Keefe Commissary Network, LLC of St. Louis; Sentinel Offender Services , L.L.C.; AJA Management & Technical Services, Inc., and

12864-487: The families of victims before granting the pardons. He responded to criticism of his actions, saying that 90% of those involved had already been released from prison, many years earlier; he acted in order to allow them to find employment, get professional licenses, vote and hunt. He also stated that in 90% of the cases his decision was based on recommendations of the parole board. Juris Doctor A Juris Doctor , Doctor of Jurisprudence , or Doctor of Law ( JD )

12998-450: The firm remained one of DC's top 25, but had seen revenues drop both in 2009 and in 2010. As of 2011, Barbour continued to "collect payments from BGR through a blind trust, which was recently valued at $ 3.3 million". In early 2014, Barbour and his nephew, Henry Barbour, formed a Super PAC named Mississippi Conservatives, which supported the successful reelection campaign of Senator Thad Cochran . In 1993, Barbour became chairman of

13132-657: The general election on November 4, 2003, with 53 percent of the vote to Musgrove's 46 percent. Barbour became just the second Republican governor elected in Mississippi since Reconstruction , the first being Kirk Fordice . Barbour took office in January 2004. Barbour has been praised for translating his lobbying skills into success at winning over a legislature dominated by Democrats. Barbour has called several special legislative sessions to force an issue. Writing for Reason magazine in February 2011, Damon Root expressed

13266-419: The governor's office and Barbour's refusal to spend $ 500,000 in museum planning funds as part of the reason why. Barbour also declined to name a museum commission to oversee the final push for funding and construction. Following controversy over Barbour's statements on White Citizens' Councils , the governor again declared his complete support for construction of the museum, in what many political observers felt

13400-645: The grocery tax passed by the Mississippi House of Representatives during his first term as governor. Mississippi currently has the third-lowest cigarette tax and the highest grocery tax—while being the poorest state in the country. He stated that the lack of revenue generated after the tax swap would quite possibly result in bankrupting the state government, which was already fragile due to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina. The House of Representatives could produce no figures to dispute this assertion. Also, in his successful 2004 campaign, Barbour ran on

13534-420: The idea took hold at the new law school established at the University of Chicago and other universities. By 1925, 80% of US law schools awarded the JD to students who had entered the program with an undergraduate degree, while granting undergraduate entrants the LLB. The change was initially rejected by the leading law schools of the time Harvard, Yale and Columbia. By the late 1920s, schools were moving away from

13668-448: The issue in this case is the number of pardons compared to former governors. Previous governor Ronnie Musgrove issued only one pardon, for a man convicted of marijuana possession; Governor Kirk Fordice , who preceded Musgrove, issued only two full pardons for convicted murderers. Harry Bostick, whom Barbour pardoned, had been convicted of DUI three times, and at the time of his pardon was being held for (and subsequently pleaded guilty to)

13802-514: The largest architectural brainstorm in 100 years – saw local and national architects worked together in teams to coordinate specific design plans for each municipality, as well as regional plans for transportation, coding and retail. Designers aimed to plan areas which would be more diverse, less auto-dependent, more environmentally-efficient and more secure from hurricanes. Accordingly, the projects not only focused on reconstruction plans, but also on zoning and development codes. Journalists from across

13936-530: The latter part of the 18th century. With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a United States university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary , which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LLB abbreviation in the United States. The first university law programs in

14070-426: The law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers. It was said by one famous attorney in

14204-421: The litigation of patent-related matters in state and federal courts. In the United States , the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor (sometimes shown on Latin diplomas in the accusative form Juris Doctorem ) and at some law schools Doctor of Law (JD), or Doctor of Jurisprudence (also abbreviated JD). " Juris Doctor " literally means "teacher of law", while

14338-399: The mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed. The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a " commonplace book ", which he would try to memorize. Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study

14472-609: The model for other law schools of the Middle Ages , and other early universities such as the University of Padua . The first academic degrees may have been doctorates in civil law ( doctores legum ) followed by canon law ( doctores decretorum ); these were not professional degrees but rather indicated that their holders had been approved to teach at the universities. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees (bachelor's and licences) were introduced in Paris and then in

14606-473: The named defendant being Cornell Companies, which had been merged with GEO in 2010. Wexford Health Sources paid $ 4 million. Keefe Commissary Network paid $ 3.1 million. $ 3.1 million was paid by C.N.W. Construction Company. $ 750,000 was paid by CGL Facility Management, which provides maintenance services. $ 32,188 was received from AdminPros LLC, a Medicaid billing service. Insurance agent Guy E. "Butch" Evans paid $ 100,000. The evacuation order for Hurricane Katrina

14740-515: The new Queen's University of Ireland . The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States, as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for but were not finally established until later in

14874-565: The nineteenth century. Thus, even though the name of the English LLB degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the United States was nonetheless intended as a first degree which, unlike the English B.A., gave practical or professional training in law. In the mid-19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States. C.C. Langdell served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, and dedicated his life to reforming legal education in

15008-449: The opinion that Barbour supports farm subsidies , corporate welfare , and eminent domain . When he took office, the state of Mississippi had run a $ 709 million budget deficit for the 2004 fiscal year. With bipartisan support, and without raising taxes, Barbour implemented a plan called Operation: Streamline to cut the budget deficit in half. He accomplished this largely by reducing spending on social services, most notably Medicaid ;

15142-509: The platform that he would veto any tax increase. In May 2009, Barbour followed the State Tax Commission's recommendation and signed into law the state's first increase since 1985, from 18 cents to 68 cents per pack. The tax is estimated to generate more than $ 113 million for the year that begins July 1, 2009. Barbour announced on February 8, 2007, that he would seek a second term as Governor of Mississippi . Barbour announced

15276-443: The previous year. This trend continued in the state budget for the 2006 fiscal year. After a long special session, the legislature approved a budget that featured more social service cuts but also increased educational spending. With tax revenues higher than expected during the 2006 fiscal year, due in large part to increased sales tax revenues in the wake of Hurricane Katrina, the state achieved its first balanced budget in years. In

15410-423: The proceeds of the firm's lobbying activities are deposited into Barbour's investment account. According to Barbour's attorney, a blind trust executed in 2004 prevents Barbour knowing the composition of his investments in order to eliminate any conflicts of interest . Barbour has also received criticism from some Mississippi Democrats for his refusal to approve a bill to increase the cigarette tax and decrease

15544-563: The profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality". Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in each state. Due to an initial distrust of

15678-483: The prosecution and wore a wire for a substantial amount of time before their indictments were made public. Before federal Judge Henry Travillion Wingate pronounced his sentence in July 2017, Epps asked forgiveness of the many he had harmed. He said, "It comes back to greed. I made some stupid mistakes I will regret for the rest of my life." Judge Wingate characterized Epps' conduct as, "staggering." He continued, "Mississippi

15812-399: The public, and provide "a central decision-making point for when things get balled up or go sideways, which they do", as Barbour says. While the reconstruction process does not dictate how localities should rebuild, Barbour has touted New Urbanist principles in constructing more compact communities. "They have the chance to build some things very differently," he says. "The goal is to build

15946-488: The requisite 3-10 years. This is what's often referred to as ' amnesty .'" "As part of that work, Barbour's firm arranged meetings and briefings with 'Senators, members of Congress and their staffs, as well as Executive Branch Officials in the White House, National Security Council, State Department, and Immigration & Naturalization Service'. Barbour's firm charged Mexico $ 35,000 a month, plus expenses." As of 2010,

16080-465: The role of the white supremacist Council in publicly naming and blacklisting individuals who petitioned for educational integration and how it used political pressure and violence to force African-American residents to move. This led to a considerable outcry in which critics such as Rachel Maddow accused Barbour of whitewashing history. In response to criticism, Barbour issued a statement declaring Citizens' Councils to be "indefensible." In what

16214-496: The role of universities became subsequently important for the education of lawyers in the English-speaking world. In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system. The original method of education at

16348-505: The slippery slope of saying, 'That person can't be for me,' then where do you stop? ... I don't care who has my picture. My picture's in the public domain." Barbour's Democratic opponent, then-governor Ronnie Musgrove, declined to be critical, stating that he had also attended Blackhawk rallies in the past, and would have done so that year except for a scheduling conflict. Historically, both Democrats and Republicans have participated in Blackhawk rallies. Barbour defeated incumbent Musgrove in

16482-540: The southern Democrats who preceded him", saying: "As far as I'm concerned, he has never done anything as a governor or a citizen to distinguish himself from the old Democrats who fought tooth and nail to preserve segregation." In 2006, he declined to posthumously pardon Clyde Kennard , an African-American civil rights pioneer, after evidence was presented that Kennard had been falsely convicted of burglary in Hattiesburg, Mississippi in 1960. Instead, Barbour designated

16616-527: The tobacco industry has been particularly prominent. BGR also "lobbied on behalf of the Embassy of Mexico in 2001 to promote a bill related to Section 245(i) of the Immigration and Nationality Act . This provision would have provided a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants in the United States, through family connections or job skills, without a requirement that they return to their home country for

16750-430: The transplant had not occurred because of other medical conditions suffered by the intended recipient. In September 2008, some Democrats accused Barbour of trying to influence the outcome of the 2008 Senate race by placing the candidates at the bottom of the ballot. Since Mississippi electoral law mandates the placing of federal elections at the top of the ballot, Barbour was ordered by a circuit court to comply with

16884-403: Was able to convert political support into law, overcoming the resistance of House Democratic leaders, who argued that further legislation would disenfranchise people with legitimate complaints against corporations. Barbour then embarked on a "tort tour" to encourage other states to follow Mississippi's lead. "We've gone from being labeled as a judicial hellhole and the center of jackpot justice to

17018-533: Was an attempt to dampen criticism over his remarks as well as to disassociate himself from Mississippi's racially intolerant past. The museum secured $ 20 million in funding from the Mississippi Legislature in April 2011 after Barbour personally testified in favor of its funding. During an April 11, 2010, appearance on CNN , host Candy Crowley asked if it had been insensitive for Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell to omit mentioning slavery in

17152-498: Was characterized by a concerted effort at evacuation, tough-minded talk on looters and an unwillingness to blame the federal government. His response was likened, favorably, to that of Rudy Giuliani in the wake of the September 11 attacks . Barbour credited the government workers who helped southern Mississippi to cope with the hurricane. Barbour was praised by the coast's citizens as a strong leader who can communicate calmly to

17286-570: Was interviewed by The Weekly Standard magazine. Asked about coming of age in Yazoo City during the civil rights era, he told the interviewer regarding growing up there, "I just don't remember it as being that bad." Barbour then credited the White Citizens' Council for keeping the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) out of Yazoo City and ensuring the peaceful integration of its schools. Barbour dismissed comparisons between White Citizens' Councils and

17420-436: Was issued by local officials more than 24 hours before it hit, and Mississippi activated 750 National Guard troops as of August 29, the day of the hurricane. On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck Mississippi's coast, killing 231 people, devastating the state's $ 2.7 billion-a-year casino industry and leaving tens of thousands homeless. (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on Mississippi ). Barbour's response

17554-408: Was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college. Therefore, the modern legal education system in the United States is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill, implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the United States and in the JD program of study. The JD originated in

17688-417: Was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination. Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education. But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique. The clerkship program required much individual study and

17822-436: Was speculated to be an attempt at damage control just days after the interview, Barbour suspended the prison sentences of Jamie and Gladys Scott , two African American women who each received two life sentences resulting from a 1993 mugging in which the two women allegedly conspired to steal what amounted to $ 11. Barbour has denied that there was any connection between the suspension of the Scott sisters' prison sentence and

17956-492: Was the first to offer the JD in 1902, when it was just one of five law schools that demanded a college degree from its applicants. While approval was still pending at Harvard, the degree was introduced at many other law schools, including at the law schools at NYU, Berkeley, Michigan, and Stanford. Because of tradition, and concerns about less prominent universities implementing a JD program, prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard, Yale, and Columbia refused to implement

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