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53-656: The name mistletoe originally referred to the species Viscum album (European mistletoe, of the family Santalaceae in the order Santalales); it is the only species native to the British Isles and much of Europe. A related species with red rather than white fruits, Viscum cruciatum , occurs in Southwest Spain and Southern Portugal, as well as in Morocco in North Africa and in southern Africa. There

106-519: A berry from the bush. When the berries are all plucked the privilege ceases. In Germany, the Christmas tradition is that people who kiss under mistletoe will have an enduring love or are bound to marry one another. Every year, the UK town of Tenbury Wells holds a mistletoe festival and crowns a 'Mistletoe Queen'. Mistletoe is the county flower of Herefordshire . It was voted such in 2002 following

159-559: A disproportionately pervasive influence over their community. A broad array of animals depend on mistletoe for food, consuming the leaves and young shoots, transferring pollen between plants and dispersing the sticky seeds. In western North America their juicy berries are eaten and spread by birds (notably the phainopepla ) while in Australia the mistletoebird behaves similarly. When eaten, some seeds pass unharmed through their digestive systems, emerging in extremely sticky droppings which

212-414: A hanging of mistletoe were obliged to kiss . The custom may be of Scandinavian origin. It was alluded to as common practice in 1808 and described in 1820 by American author Washington Irving in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. : The mistletoe is still hung up in farm-houses and kitchens at Christmas, and the young men have the privilege of kissing the girls under it, plucking each time

265-427: A haustorium that connects it to the host tree by connecting the xylem and phloem of the mistletoe to that of the host tree, which allows it to receive nutrients and water. It has stems 30–100 centimetres (12–39 in) long with dichotomous branching. The leaves are in opposite pairs, strap-shaped, entire, leathery textured, 2–8 centimetres (0.79–3.15 in) long, 0.8–2.5 centimetres (0.31–0.98 in) broad and are

318-488: A mistletoe plant is established on its host, it usually is possible to save a valuable branch by pruning and judicious removal of the wood invaded by the haustorium , if the infection is caught early enough. Some species of mistletoe can regenerate if the pruning leaves any of the haustorium alive in the wood. There are 1500 species of mistletoe, varying widely in toxicity to humans; the European mistletoe ( Viscum album )

371-608: A poll by the wild plant conservation charity Plantlife . Mistletoe is an ingredient of biska , a pomace brandy -based liquor made in Istria . Mistletoe leaves and young twigs are used by herbalists, and preparations made from them are popular in Europe, especially in Germany , for attempting to treat circulatory and respiratory system problems. Use of mistletoe extract in the treatment of cancer originated with Rudolf Steiner ,

424-550: A significant role in European mythology, legends, and customs. In modern times, it is commonly featured in Christmas decoration and symbology. ( V. album is found only rarely in North America , as an introduced species; its cultural roles are usually fulfilled by the similar native species Phoradendron leucarpum .) It is a hemi-parasitic evergreen shrub , which grows on the stems of other trees. The plant contains

477-403: A small proportion of the sugars it needs from its own photosynthesis, but as a seedling actively photosynthesizes until a connection to the host is established. Some species of the largest family, Loranthaceae, have small, insect-pollinated flowers (as with Santalaceae), but others have spectacularly showy, large, bird-pollinated flowers. Most mistletoe seeds are spread by birds that eat

530-437: A wide range of host trees , some of which experience side effects including reduced growth, stunting, and loss of infested outer branches. A heavy infestation may also kill the host plant. Viscum album successfully parasitizes more than 200 tree and shrub species. All mistletoe species are hemiparasites because they do perform some photosynthesis for some period of their life cycle. However, in some species its contribution

583-458: A yellowish-green in colour. This species is dioecious and the insect-pollinated flowers are inconspicuous, yellowish-green, 2–3 millimetres (0.079–0.118 in) diameter. The fruit is a white or yellow berry containing one (very rarely several) seed embedded in the very sticky, glutinous fruit pulp. It is commonly found in the crowns of broad-leaved trees, particularly apple , lime (linden), hawthorn and poplar . European mistletoe

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636-423: Is Viscum continuum . A mistletoe seed germinates on the branch of a host tree or shrub, and in its early stages of development it is independent of its host. It commonly has two or even four embryos, each producing its hypocotyl , that grows towards the bark of the host under the influence of light and gravity, and potentially each forming a mistletoe plant in a clump. Possibly as an adaptation to assist in guiding

689-409: Is a cytotoxic protein ( ribosome inactivating protein , or RIP) that binds to galactose residues of cell surface glycoproteins and may be internalised by endocytosis . Viscumin strongly inhibits protein synthesis by inactivating the 60 S ribosomal subunit. The structure of this protein is very similar to other RIPs, showing the most resemblance to ricin and abrin . Some birds have immunity to

742-505: Is also a wide variety of species in Australia. The genus Viscum is not native to North America , but Viscum album was introduced to Northern California in 1900. The eastern mistletoe native to North America, Phoradendron leucarpum , belongs to a distinct genus of the family Santalaceae . European mistletoe has smooth-edged, oval, evergreen leaves borne in pairs along the woody stem, and waxy, white berries that it bears in clusters of two to six. The eastern mistletoe of North America

795-590: Is believed to be the Golden Bough of Aeneas , ancestor of the Romans . Also in Greek mythology mistletoe was used by heroes to access the underworld. The Romans associated mistletoe with peace, love and understanding and hung it over doorways to protect the household. Modern botanists believe the described Mistletoe species in oak trees was Loranthus europaeus . According to the 13th century Prose Edda ,

848-405: Is frequently used to study the growth promoting vs. growth repressing effects of application of plant hormones like ethylene. Under normal light conditions, hypocotyl growth is controlled by a process called photomorphogenesis, while shading the seedlings evokes a rapid transcriptional response which negatively regulates photomorphogenesis and results in increased rates of hypocotyl growth. This rate

901-760: Is more toxic than the American mistletoe ( Phoradendron serotinum ), though concerns regarding toxicity are more prevalent in the US. The effects are not usually fatal. In parts of South Asia, they are frequently used as an external medicine. The active substances are phoratoxin (in Phoradendron ) and tyramine (in Viscum ) and their effects include blurred vision , diarrhea , nausea and vomiting . Less commonly they cause cardiac problems; seizures , hypertension , and even cardiac arrest . Toxins are more concentrated in

954-502: Is similar, but has shorter, broader leaves and longer clusters of 10 or more berries. Over the centuries, the term has been broadened to include many other species of parasitic plants with similar habits, found in other parts of the world, that are classified in different genera and families such as the Misodendraceae of South America and the mainly southern hemisphere tropical Loranthaceae . The word 'mistletoe' derives from

1007-411: Is somewhat different. A structure called the coleoptile , essentially a part of the cotyledon , protects the young stem and plumule as growth pushes them up through the soil. A mesocotyl —that part of the young plant that lies between the seed (which remains buried) and the plumule—extends the shoot up to the soil surface, where secondary roots develop from just beneath the plumule. The primary root from

1060-427: Is the only multicellular organism known to not have a functioning respiratory complex I in its electron transport chain , a protein that's essential for the creation of useful energy for its cells. It is believed to survive by obtaining adenosine triphosphate and energy-rich compounds from its host as well as reorganizing its other respiratory complexes and slowing its growth and energy requirements. The mistletoe

1113-425: Is the source of viscous . Hypocotyl The hypocotyl (short for "hypocotyledonous stem", meaning "below seed leaf") is the stem of a germinating seedling , found below the cotyledons (seed leaves) and above the radicle ( root ). As the plant embryo grows at germination, it sends out a shoot called a radicle that becomes the primary root, and then penetrates down into the soil . After emergence of

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1166-401: Is very nearly zero. For example, some species, such as Viscum minimum , that parasitize succulents , commonly species of Cactaceae or Euphorbiaceae , grow largely within the host plant, with hardly more than the flower and fruit emerging. Once they have germinated and attached to the circulatory system of the host, their photosynthesis reduces so far that it becomes insignificant. Most of

1219-399: The marbled murrelet . In Australia the diamond firetail and painted honeyeater are recorded as nesting in different mistletoes. A study of mistletoe in junipers concluded that more juniper berries sprout in stands where mistletoe is present, as the mistletoe attracts berry-eating birds which also eat juniper berries. Mistletoe is relevant to several cultures. Pagan cultures regarded

1272-451: The 'seeds' (in actuality drupes ). Of the many bird species that feed on them, the mistle thrush is the best-known in Europe, the phainopepla in southwestern North America, and Dicaeum flowerpeckers in Asia and Australia. Depending on the species of mistletoe and the species of bird, the seeds are regurgitated from the crop, excreted in their droppings, or stuck to the bill, from which

1325-726: The Santalales—first in the Misodendraceae , but also in the Loranthaceae and three times in the Santalaceae (in the former Santalalean families Eremolepidaceae and Viscaceae , and the tribe Amphorogyneae). The largest family of mistletoes, the Loranthaceae , has 73 genera and over 900 species. Subtropical and tropical climates have markedly more mistletoe species; Australia has 85, of which 71 are in Loranthaceae, and 14 in Santalaceae. Mistletoe species grow on

1378-476: The UK town of Tenbury Wells holds a mistletoe festival and crowns a 'Mistletoe Queen'. Viscum album Viscum album is a species of mistletoe in the family Santalaceae , commonly known as European mistletoe , common mistletoe or simply as mistletoe ( Old English mistle ). It is native to Europe and western and southern Asia . Viscum album is a hemiparasite on several species of trees, from which it draws water and nutrients. It has

1431-492: The Viscaceae bear evergreen leaves that photosynthesise effectively, and photosynthesis proceeds within their green, fleshy stems as well. Some species, such as Viscum capense , are adapted to semi-arid conditions and their leaves are vestigial scales, hardly visible without detailed morphological investigation. Therefore, their photosynthesis and transpiration only take place in their stems, limiting their demands on

1484-409: The bird deposits on tree branches, where some may stick long enough to germinate. As the plants mature, they grow into masses of branching stems which suggest the popular name "witches' brooms". The dense evergreen witches' brooms formed by the dwarf mistletoes ( Arceuthobium species) of western North America also make excellent locations for roosting and nesting of the northern spotted owl and

1537-408: The bird wipes it onto a suitable branch. The seeds are coated with a sticky material called viscin . Some viscin remains on the seed and when it touches a stem, it sticks tenaciously. The viscin soon hardens and attaches the seed firmly to its future host, where it germinates and its haustorium penetrates the sound bark. Specialist mistletoe eaters have adaptations that expedite the process; some pass

1590-423: The entire crown and replacing it with their own growth. In such a tree the host is relegated purely to the supply of water and mineral nutrients and the physical support of the trunk. Such a tree may survive as a Viscum community for years; it resembles a totally unknown species unless one examines it closely, because its foliage does not look like that of any tree. An example of a species that behaves in this manner

1643-443: The founder of Anthroposophy . Although laboratory and animal experiments have suggested that mistletoe extract may affect the immune system and be able to kill some kinds of cancer cells, there is little evidence of its benefit to people with cancer. The sticky juice of mistletoe berries was used to make birdlime , an adhesive to trap small animals or birds. The Latin word viscum , 'mistletoe, birdlime'

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1696-406: The goddess Frigg had everything swear an oath not to hurt her son Baldr , except for mistletoe, because "it seemed too young" to her for that. After this at the thing , other gods had fun by shooting at him, or hurling stones, without him being injured at all. Loki , wishing him dead, tricked Baldr's brother, the blind god Höðr into throwing mistletoe at Baldr, killing him. In the version of

1749-475: The host for its needs. Later it forms a haustorium that penetrates the host tissue and takes water and nutrients from the host plant. Species more or less obligate include the leafless quintral, Tristerix aphyllus , which lives deep inside the sugar-transporting tissue of a spiny cactus, appearing only to show its tubular red flowers, and the genus Arceuthobium (dwarf mistletoe; Santalaceae) which has reduced photosynthesis; as an adult, it manufactures only

1802-470: The host trees utilised. The European mistletoe has one of the largest genomes of all organisms at about 90 billion base pairs (compared to ~3 billion bp in the human genome ). It encodes 39,092 distinct open reading frames encoding 32,064 proteins . European mistletoe is potentially fatal, in a concentrated form, and people can become seriously ill from eating the berries. The toxic lectin viscumin has been isolated from Viscum album . Viscumin

1855-501: The host's supply of water, but also limiting their intake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Accordingly, their contribution to the host's metabolic balance becomes trivial and the idle parasite may become quite yellow as it grows, having practically given up photosynthesis. At another extreme other species have vigorous green leaves. Not only do they photosynthesize actively, but a heavy infestation of mistletoe plants may take over whole host tree branches, sometimes killing practically

1908-607: The household. In the Christian era, mistletoe in the Western world became associated with Christmas as a decoration under which lovers are expected to kiss, as well as with protection from witches and demons . Mistletoe continued to be associated with fertility and vitality through the Middle Ages, and by the 18th century it had also become incorporated into Christmas celebrations around the world. The custom of kissing under

1961-540: The leaves and berries of the plant, with teas prepared from the plant being particularly dangerous. While adults may suffer little effect, these are more pronounced in small children and in animals. Mistletoe has been used historically in medicine for its supposed value in treating arthritis , high blood pressure , epilepsy and infertility . Mistletoes are often considered pests that kill trees and devalue natural habitats, but some species have recently been recognized as ecological keystone species , organisms that have

2014-417: The mistletoe is referred to as popular among servants in late 18th-century England. The serving class of Victorian England is credited with perpetuating the tradition. The tradition dictated that a man was allowed to kiss any woman standing underneath mistletoe, and that bad luck would befall any woman who refused the kiss. One variation on the tradition stated that with each kiss a berry was to be plucked from

2067-440: The mistletoe, and the kissing must stop after all the berries had been removed. From at least the mid-19th century, Caribbean herbalists of African descent have referred to mistletoe as "god-bush". In Nepal, diverse mistletoes are used for a variety of medical purposes, particularly for treating broken bones. Mistletoe is the floral emblem of the US state of Oklahoma and the flower of the UK county of Herefordshire . Every year,

2120-569: The older form 'mistle' adding the Old English word tān (twig). 'Mistle' is common Germanic (Old High German mistil , Middle High German mistel , Old English mistel , Old Norse mistil ). Further etymology is uncertain, but may be related to the Germanic base for 'mash'. Parasitism has evolved at least twelve times among the vascular plants. Molecular data show the mistletoe habit has evolved independently five times within

2173-563: The only ancient writer to mention the use of mistletoe in this ceremony was Pliny. Evidence taken from bog bodies makes the Celtic use of mistletoe seem medicinal rather than ritual. It is possible that mistletoe was originally associated with human sacrifice and only became associated with the white bull after the Romans banned human sacrifices. The Romans associated mistletoe with peace, love and understanding and hung it over doorways to protect

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2226-474: The poison and enjoy the berries, especially the mistle thrush which is named for its favourite food. European mistletoe features in many myths and legends from early written sources, into the modern period. In cultures across pre-Christian Europe, mistletoe was often seen as a representation of divine male essence (and thus romance, fertility and vitality). Mistletoe figured prominently in Greek mythology , and

2279-400: The process of growing away from the light, the adhesive on the seed tends to darken the bark. On having made contact with the bark, the hypocotyl, with only a rudimentary scrap of root tissue at its tip, penetrates it, a process that may take a year or more. In the meantime the plant is dependent on its own photosynthesis. Only after it reaches the host's conductive tissue can it begin to rely on

2332-437: The radicle and the sheath-like cotyledon, breaking through the cotyledon to grow past it. In some plants, the hypocotyl becomes enlarged as a storage organ . Examples include cyclamen , gloxinia and celeriac . In cyclamen this storage organ is called a tuber . One of the widely used assays in the field of photobiology is the investigation of the effect of changes in light quantity and quality on hypocotyl elongation. It

2385-406: The radicle may then fail to develop further. The mesocotyl is considered to be partly hypocotyl and partly cotyledon (see seed ). Not all monocots develop like the grasses. The onion develops in a manner similar to the first sequence described above, the seed coat and endosperm (stored food reserve) pulled upwards as the cotyledon extends. Later, the first true leaf grows from the node between

2438-401: The radicle, the hypocotyl emerges and lifts the growing tip (usually including the seed coat) above the ground, bearing the embryonic leaves (called cotyledons ), and the plumule that gives rise to the first true leaves. The hypocotyl is the primary organ of extension of the young plant and develops into the stem . The early development of a monocot seedling like cereals and other grasses

2491-465: The seeds through their unusually shaped digestive tracts so fast that a pause for defecation of the seeds is part of the feeding routine. Others have adapted patterns of feeding behavior; the bird grips the fruit in its bill and squeezes the sticky-coated seed out to the side. The seed sticks to the beak and the bird wipes it off onto the branch. Biochemically, viscin is a complex adhesive mix containing cellulosic strands and mucopolysaccharides . Once

2544-524: The story in Gesta Danorum , Baldr and Höðr are rival suitors for Nanna , and Höðr kills Baldr with a sword named Mistilteinn ( Old Norse "mistletoe"). In addition, a sword by the same name also appears in Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks and Hrómundar saga Gripssonar . When Christianity became widespread in Europe after the 3rd century AD, the religious or mystical respect for the mistletoe plant

2597-644: The white berries as symbols of male fertility , with the seeds resembling semen . The Celts , particularly, saw mistletoe as the semen of Taranis , while the Ancient Greeks referred to mistletoe as "oak sperm". Also in Roman mythology, mistletoe was used by the hero Aeneas to reach the underworld. Mistletoe may have played an important role in Druidic mythology in the Ritual of Oak and Mistletoe , although

2650-553: The year, often to preserve the house from lightning or fire, until it is replaced the following Christmas Eve. The tradition has spread throughout the English-speaking world, but is largely unknown in the rest of Europe. (The similar native species Phoradendron leucarpum is used in North America in lieu of the European Viscum album .) According to an old Christmas custom, a man and a woman who meet under

2703-419: Was integrated to an extent into the new religion. In some way that is not presently understood, this may have led to the widespread custom of kissing under the mistletoe plant during the Christmas season. The earliest documented case of kissing under the mistletoe dates from 16th century England, a custom that was apparently very popular at that time. Winston Graham reports a Cornish tradition that mistletoe

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2756-482: Was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus . Its species name is the Latin adjective albus "white". It and the other members of the genus Viscum were originally classified in the mistletoe family Viscaceae , but this family has since been sunk into the larger family Santalaceae . Several subspecies are commonly accepted. They differ in fruit colour, leaf shape and size, and most obviously in

2809-485: Was originally a fine tree from which the wood of the Cross was made, but afterwards it was condemned to live on only as a parasite. Mistletoe is commonly used as a Christmas decoration , though such use was rarely alluded to until the 18th century. According to custom, the mistletoe must not touch the ground between its cutting and its removal as the last of Christmas greens at Candlemas . It may remain hanging throughout

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