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86-400: Mrs. originated as a contraction of the honorific Mistress (the feminine of Mister or Master ) which was originally applied to both married and unmarried women in the upper class. Writers who used Mrs for unmarried women include Daniel Defoe , Samuel Richardson , Henry Fielding , and Samuel Johnson . The split into Mrs for married women and Miss for unmarried began during

172-828: A funeral . As didactic texts, books of etiquette (the conventional rules of personal behaviour in polite society) usually feature explanatory titles, such as The Ladies' Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness: A Complete Hand Book for the Use of the Lady in Polite Society (1860), by Florence Hartley ; Amy Vanderbilt 's Complete Book of Etiquette (1957); Miss Manners' Guide to Excruciatingly Correct Behavior (1979), by Judith Martin ; and Peas & Queues: The Minefield of Modern Manners (2013), by Sandi Toksvig . Such books present ranges of civility, socially acceptable behaviours for their respective times. Each author cautions

258-744: A behavioural model in which manners are a means of mitigating social differences, curbing undesirable personal behaviours, and fostering co-operation within the social group. Natural selection favoured the acquisition of genetically transmitted mechanisms for learning, thereby increasing a person's chances for acquiring locally adaptive behaviours: "Humans possess a reliably developing neural encoding that compels them both to punish individuals who violate group norms (common beliefs or practices) and [to] punish individuals who do not punish norm-violators." Social manners are in three categories: (i) manners of hygiene , (ii) manners of courtesy , and (iii) manners of cultural norm . Each category accounts for an aspect of

344-496: A commitment to sociality is a risk: 'If threats, such as these, are left unchecked, the costs of sociality will quickly exceed its benefits. Thus, to maximize the returns on group "living", individual group members should be attuned to others' features or behaviors.' Therefore, people who possess the social traits common to the cultural group are to be trusted, and people without the common social traits are to be distrusted as 'others', and thus treated with suspicion or excluded from

430-422: A complicated system of codified behaviours, which governed the range of manners in society—from the proper language, style, and method for writing letters, to correctly using cutlery at table, and to the minute regulation of social relations and personal interactions between men and women and among the social classes. In a society, manners are described as either good manners or as bad manners to indicate whether

516-469: A contraction of 不 (bù) + 唯/隹 (wéi/zhuī). The contractions are not generally graphically evident, and there is no general rule for how a character representing a contraction might be formed. As a result, the identification of a character as a contraction, as well as the word(s) that are proposed to have been contracted, is sometimes disputed. As vernacular Chinese dialects use sets of function words that differ considerably from Classical Chinese , almost all of

602-443: A daily publication founded in 1711 by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele , regularly advised their readers on the etiquette required of a gentleman , a man of good and courteous conduct; their stated editorial goal was "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality… to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses"; to which end,

688-411: A definite direct object, and the definite article prefix -ה (/ha-/) are often contracted to 'ת (/ta-/) when the former immediately precedes the latter; thus, ראיתי את הכלב (/ʁaˈʔiti ʔet haˈkelev/, "I saw the dog") may become ראיתי ת'כלב (/ʁaˈʔiti taˈkelev/). In Italian , prepositions merge with direct articles in predictable ways. The prepositions a , da , di , in , su , con and per combine with

774-565: A married woman did use her husband’s last name but was still referred to as Miss ; see more at Ms. and Miss . It is now very uncommon for a woman to be addressed by her husband's first name; however, this still sometimes occurs if a couple is being addressed jointly, such as in Mr. and Mrs. John Smith . Many married women still use the title with their spouse's last name but retaining their first name (e.g., Mrs Jane Smith ). Other married women choose not to adopt their spouse's last name at all. It

860-491: A person's social status . Manners demonstrate a person's position within a social network, and a person's manners are a means of negotiation from that social position. From the perspective of public health , in The Healthy Citizen (1995), Alana R. Petersen and Deborah Lupton said that manners assisted the diminishment of the social boundaries that existed between the public sphere and the private sphere of

946-545: A person's behaviour is acceptable to the cultural group. As such, manners enable ultrasociality and are integral to the functioning of the social norms and conventions that are informally enforced through self-regulation. The perspectives of sociology indicate that manners are a means for people to display their social status, and a means of demarcating, observing, and maintaining the boundaries of social identity and of social class . In The Civilizing Process (1939), sociologist Norbert Elias said that manners arose as

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1032-407: A person's life, and so gave rise to "a highly reflective self, a self who monitors his or her behavior with due regard for others with whom he or she interacts, socially"; and that "the public behavior of individuals came to signify their social standing; a means of presenting the self and of evaluating others, and thus the control of the outward self was vital." Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu applied

1118-473: A portmanteau word is formed by combining two or more existing words that all relate to a singular concept that the portmanteau describes. English has a number of contractions, mostly involving the elision of a vowel, which is replaced by an apostrophe in writing, as in I'm for "I am", and sometimes other changes as well. Contractions are common in speech and in informal writing but tend to be avoided in more formal writing (with limited exceptions, such as

1204-511: A product of group living, and persist as a way of maintaining social order. Manners proliferated during the Renaissance in response to the development of the 'absolute state'—the progression from small-group living to large-group living characterised by the centralized power of the State. The rituals and manners associated with the royal court of England during that period were closely bound to

1290-668: A special form is used when combining con with mí, ti, or sí, which is written as conmigo for * con mí (with me), contigo for * con ti (with you sing.), consigo for * con sí (with himself/herself/itself/themselves (themself).) Finally, one can hear pa' for para , deriving as pa'l for para el , but these forms are only considered appropriate in informal speech. In Portuguese , contractions are common and much more numerous than those in Spanish. Several prepositions regularly contract with certain articles and pronouns. For instance, de (of) and por (by; formerly per ) combine with

1376-483: A verb), te → t'- (informal singular "you" before a verb), le or la → l'- ("the"; or "he", "she", "it" before a verb or after an imperative verb and before the word y or en ), and de → d'- ("of"). Unlike with English contractions, however, thoose contractions are mandatory: one would never say (or write) *ce est or *que elle . Moi ("me") and toi (informal "you") mandatorily contract to m'- and t'- , respectively, after an imperative verb and before

1462-407: A vowel, h or y (as h is silent and absorbed by the sound of the succeeding vowel; y sounds like i ). In addition to ce → c'- (demonstrative pronoun "that"), these words are que → qu'- (conjunction, relative pronoun, or interrogative pronoun "that"), ne → n'- ("not"), se → s'- ("himself", "herself", "itself", "oneself" before a verb), je → j'- ("I"), me → m'- ("me" before

1548-495: A woman as Ms. [Lastname] , regardless of her marital status. Contraction (grammar) A contraction is a shortened version of the spoken and written forms of a word , syllable , or word group , created by omission of internal letters and sounds. In linguistic analysis , contractions should not be confused with crasis , abbreviations and initialisms (including acronyms ), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by

1634-426: A young man; how to walk and talk, speak and act in the company of adults. The practical advice for acquiring adult self-awareness includes explanations of the symbolic meanings—for adults—of a boy's body language when he is fidgeting and yawning, scratching and bickering. On completing Erasmus's curriculum of etiquette, the boy has learnt that civility is the point of good manners: the adult ability to 'readily ignore

1720-639: A él , meaning to him , and de él , meaning his or, more literally, of him ). Other contractions were common in writing until the 17th century , the most usual being de + personal and demonstrative pronouns: destas for de estas (of these, fem.), daquel for de aquel (of that, masc.), dél for de él (of him) etc.; and the feminine article before words beginning with a- : l'alma for la alma , now el alma (the soul). Several sets of demonstrative pronouns originated as contractions of aquí (here) + pronoun, or pronoun + otro/a (other): aqueste , aqueso , estotro etc. The modern aquel (that, masc.)

1806-419: Is "Det ordner seg av seg selv" in standard written Bokmål , meaning "It will sort itself out" could become "dånesæsæsjæl" (note the letters Å and Æ , and the word "sjæl", as an eye dialect spelling of selv ). R-dropping , being present in the example, is especially common in speech in many areas of Norway , but plays out in different ways, as does elision of word-final phonemes like /ə/ . Because of

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1892-453: Is a commonly used plural for Miss . The plural of Mrs. is from the French : Mesdames . This may be used as is in written correspondence, or it may be abbreviated Mmes . Originally, Mrs was used with a woman's own first name and married surname. Abigail Adams , for example, was addressed as Mrs. Abigail Adams. In the 19th century, it became common to use the husband's first name instead of

1978-554: Is an element of culture shock for businesspeople. In 2011, etiquette trainers formed the Institute of Image Training and Testing International (IITTI) a non-profit organisation to train personnel departments in measuring and developing and teaching social skills to employees, by way of education in the rules of personal and business etiquette, in order to produce business workers who possess standardised manners for successfully conducting business with people from other cultures. In

2064-489: Is apparent graphically. Similarly, in Northeastern Mandarin 甭 (béng) 'needn't' is a phonological and graphical contraction of 不用 (bùyòng). Finally, Cantonese contracts 乜嘢 (mat1 ye5) 'what?' to 咩 (me1). Note: The particles 爰, 焉, 云, and 然 ending in [-j[a/ə]n] behave as the grammatical equivalents of a verb (or coverb) followed by 之 'him; her; it (third-person object)' or a similar demonstrative pronoun in

2150-458: Is dat?" - what is that?. Some of these contractions: French has a variety of contractions like in English except that they are mandatory, as in C'est la vie ("That's life") in which c'est stands for ce + est ("that is"). The formation of such contractions is called elision . In general, any monosyllabic word ending in e caduc (schwa) contracts if the following word begins with

2236-503: Is generally considered polite to address a woman by Ms. rather than Mrs. , unless the preference of the woman in question is clearly-known. This is especially true in written communication, as dictated by professional etiquette. Modern etiquette provides various options in addressing married couples in which the wife uses her own last name, or uses a title such as Dr. , Mayor , or Ms. . Etiquette-writer Judith Martin ("Miss Manners") generally advises that, in non-standard situations,

2322-824: Is left to a great extent to authors and their publishers. Outside quotations, at least, they usually pay little attention to print more than the most commonly spoken contractions, so as not to degrade their readability. The use of apostrophes to indicate omissions is a varying and considerably less frequent process than in English-language publications. In standard Indonesian, there are no contractions applied, although Indonesian contractions exist in Indonesian slang . Many of these contractions are terima kasih to makasih ("thank you"), kenapa to napa ("why"), nggak to gak ("not"), sebentar to tar ("a moment"), and sudah to dah ("done"). The use of contractions

2408-500: Is not allowed in any form of standard Norwegian spelling; however, it is fairly common to shorten or contract words in spoken language. Yet, the commonness varies from dialect to dialect and from sociolect to sociolect—it depends on the formality etc. of the setting. Some common, and quite drastic, contractions found in Norwegian speech are "jakke" for "jeg har ikke", meaning "I do not have" and "dække" for "det er ikke", meaning "there

2494-484: Is not". The most frequently used of these contractions—usually consisting of two or three words contracted into one word, contain short, common and often monosyllabic words like jeg , du , deg , det , har or ikke . The use of the apostrophe (') is much less common than in English, but is sometimes used in contractions to show where letters have been dropped. In extreme cases, long, entire sentences may be written as one word. An example of this

2580-416: Is often true of other words of similar form, e.g. quale . The direct object pronouns "lo" and "la" may also contract to form "l'" with a form of "avere", such as "L'ho comprato" - "I have bought it", or "L'abbiamo vista" - "We have seen her". Spanish has two mandatory phonetic contractions between prepositions and articles: al (to the) for a el , and del (of the) for de el (not to be confused with

2666-454: Is preserved in the verb nolo (I am unwilling/do not want), which was formed by a contraction of non volo ( volo meaning "I want"). Similarly this is observed in the first person plural and third person plural forms (nolumus and nolunt respectively). Some contractions in rapid speech include ～っす ( -ssu ) for です ( desu ) and すいません ( suimasen ) for すみません ( sumimasen ). では ( dewa ) is often contracted to じゃ ( ja ). In certain grammatical contexts

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2752-406: Is similar to English ones is the combination of the pronoun da with words starting in a , resulting in changing the first letter a for an apostrophe and joining both words. Examples: Estrela d'alva (A popular phrase to refer to Venus that means "Alb star", as a reference to its brightness); Caixa d'água (water tank). In informal, spoken German prepositional phrases , one can often merge

2838-557: Is spoken as Samma, Meesta, kamma hier ma rin? Several West Central German dialects along the Rhine River have built contraction patterns involving long phrases and entire sentences. In speech, words are often concatenated, and frequently the process of "liaison" is used. So, [Dat] kriegst Du nicht may become Kressenit , or Lass mich gehen, habe ich gesagt may become Lomejon haschjesaat . Mostly, there are no binding orthographies for local dialects of German, hence writing

2924-449: Is the base of all evil and should be guarded against, and that generosity towards family and friends is praiseworthy. Confucius (551–479  BCE ) was a Chinese intellectual and philosopher whose works emphasized personal and governmental morality , correctness of social relationships, the pursuit of justice in personal dealings, and sincerity in all personal relations. Baldassare Castiglione (1478–1529  CE ), count of Casatico,

3010-461: Is the manner in which the mob express their silly joy at silly things; and they call it being merry. In my mind there is nothing so illiberal, and so ill-bred, as audible laughter. I am neither of a melancholy nor a cynical disposition, and am as willing and as apt to be pleased as anybody; but I am sure that since I have had the full use of my reason nobody has ever heard me laugh. In the 19th century, Victorian era (1837–1901) etiquette developed into

3096-412: Is the only survivor of the first pattern; the personal pronouns nosotros (we) and vosotros (pl. you) are remnants of the second. In medieval texts, unstressed words very often appear contracted: todol for todo el (all the, masc.), ques for que es (which is); etc. including with common words, like d'ome (d'home/d'homme) instead de ome (home/homme), and so on. Though not strictly a contraction,

3182-481: Is the set of norms of personal behaviour in polite society, usually occurring in the form of an ethical code of the expected and accepted social behaviours that accord with the conventions and norms observed and practised by a society , a social class , or a social group . In modern English usage, the French word étiquette (label and tag) dates from the year 1750. In the third millennium  BCE ,

3268-519: Is used as a possessive pronoun) and jemu , respectively. The clitic -ń , which stands for niego (him), as in dlań ( dla niego ), is more common in literature. The non-contracted forms are generally used as a means to accentuate. Uyghur , a Turkic language spoken in Central Asia , includes some verbal suffixes that are actually contracted forms of compound verbs ( serial verbs ). For instance, sëtip alidu (sell-manage, "manage to sell")

3354-527: Is used to indicate obligation. It is often used without an auxiliary, e.g., 行かなきゃ（いけない） ( ikanakya (ikenai) ) "I have to go." Other times, contractions are made to create new words or to give added or altered meaning: Various dialects of Japanese also use their own specific contractions that are often unintelligible to speakers of other dialects. In Polish , pronouns have contracted forms that are more prevalent in their colloquial usage. Examples are go and mu . The non-contracted forms are jego (unless it

3440-417: Is usually written and pronounced sëtivaldu , with the two words forming a contraction and the [p] leniting into a [v] or [w]. In Filipino, most contractions need other words to be contracted correctly. Only words that end with vowels can make a contraction with words like "at" and "ay." In this chart, the "@" represents any vowel. Etiquette Etiquette ( / ˈ ɛ t i k ɛ t , - k ɪ t / )

3526-417: The [s] of sais . It is also common in informal contexts to contract tu to t'- before a vowel: t'as mangé for tu as mangé . In Modern Hebrew , the prepositional prefixes -בְּ /bə-/ 'in' and -לְ /lə-/ 'to' contract with the definite article prefix -ה (/ha-/) to form the prefixes -ב /ba/ 'in the' and -ל /la/ 'to the'. In Colloquial Israeli Hebrew]], the preposition את (/ʔet/), which indicates

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3612-536: The retail branch of commerce, the saying "the customer is always right" summarises the profit-orientation of good manners, between the buyer and the seller of goods and services: There are always two sides to the case, of course, and it is a credit to good manners that there is scarcely ever any friction in stores and shops of the first class. Salesmen and women are usually persons who are both patient and polite, and their customers are most often ladies in fact as well as "by courtesy." Between those before and those behind

3698-435: The subconscious level. Manners are likely to be a central part of the dispositions that guide a person's ability to decide upon socially-compliant behaviours. In Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (2003) the anthropologist Mary Douglas said that manners, social behaviors, and group rituals enable the local cosmology to remain ordered and free from those things that may pollute or defile

3784-406: The white-collar workforce because it was difficult to change names and titles when they had already established a career. Women who became famous or well known in their professional circles before marriage often kept their birth names, stage names, or pen names. Miss became the appellation for celebrities (e.g., Miss Helen Hayes , or Miss Amelia Earhart ) but this also proved problematic, as when

3870-400: The 17th century, but was not reliable until well into the 19th century. It is rare for Mrs. to be written in a non-abbreviated form, and the unabbreviated word lacks a standard spelling. In literature it may appear as missus or missis in dialogue. A variant in the works of Thomas Hardy and others is "Mis'ess", reflecting its etymology . Misses has been used but is ambiguous, as this

3956-518: The Ancient Egyptian vizier Ptahhotep wrote The Maxims of Ptahhotep (2375–2350  BCE ), a didactic book of precepts extolling civil virtues such as truthfulness, self-control, and kindness towards other people. Recurrent thematic motifs in the maxims include learning by listening to other people, being mindful of the imperfection of human knowledge, that avoiding open conflict whenever possible should not be considered weakness, and that

4042-467: The Chinese and Australian approaches to conflict resolution. The Chinese business philosophy is based upon guanxi (personal connections), whereby person-to-person negotiation resolves difficult matters, whereas Australian business philosophy relies upon attorneys-at-law to resolve business conflicts through legal mediation; thus, adjusting to the etiquette and professional ethics of another culture

4128-595: The Courtier (1528), by Baldassare Castiglione , identified the manners and the morals required by socially ambitious men and women for success in a royal court of the Italian Renaissance (14th–17th c.); as an etiquette text, The Courtier was an influential courtesy book in 16th-century Europe. On Civility in Children (1530), by Erasmus of Rotterdam , instructs boys in the means of becoming

4214-506: The [-n] ending is derived from a Sino-Tibetan aspect marker that later took on anaphoric character. Here are some of the contractions in Standard Dutch : Informal Belgian Dutch uses a wide range of non-standard contractions such as "hoe's't" (from "hoe is het?" - how are you?), "hij's d'r" (from "hij is daar" - he's there), "w'ebbe' goe' g'ete'" (from "we hebben goed gegeten" - we had eaten well) and "wa's da'?" (from "wat

4300-942: The apostrophe) in certain contexts. For example, the greeting Wie geht es? is usually encountered in the contracted form Wie geht's? . Regional dialects of German, and various local languages that usually were already used long before today's Standard German was created, do use contractions usually more frequently than German, but varying widely between different local languages. The informally spoken German contractions are observed almost everywhere, most often accompanied by additional ones, such as in den becoming in'n (sometimes im ) or haben wir becoming hamwer , hammor , hemmer , or hamma depending on local intonation preferences. Bavarian German features several more contractions such as gesund sind wir becoming xund samma , which are schematically applied to all word or combinations of similar sound. (One must remember, however, that German wir exists alongside Bavarian mir , or mia , with

4386-669: The best chance of biological survival, by way of opportunities for reproduction . From the study of the evolutionary bases of prejudice , social psychologists Catherine Cottrell and Steven Neuberg said that human behavioural responses to ' otherness ' might enable the preservation of manners and social norms . The feeling of "foreignness"—which people experience in their first social interaction with someone from another culture—might partly serve an evolutionary function: 'Group living surrounds one with individuals [who are] able to physically harm fellow group members, to spread contagious disease, or to "free ride" on their efforts'; therefore,

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4472-526: The ceremonious royal court favourably impressed foreign dignitaries whom the king received at the seat of French government, the Palace of Versailles , to the south-west of Paris. In the 18th century, during the Age of Enlightenment , the adoption of etiquette was a self-conscious process for acquiring the conventions of politeness and the normative behaviours (charm, manners, demeanour) which symbolically identified

4558-535: The classical contractions that are listed below are now archaic and have disappeared from everyday use. However, modern contractions have evolved from the new vernacular function words. Modern contractions appear in all major modern dialect groups. For example, 别 (bié) 'don't' in Standard Mandarin is a contraction of 不要 (bùyào), and 覅 (fiào) 'don't' in Shanghainese is a contraction of 勿要 (wù yào), as

4644-438: The concept of habitus to define the societal functions of manners. The habitus is the set of mental attitudes, personal habits, and skills that a person possesses—his or her dispositions of character that are neither self-determined, nor pre-determined by the external environment, but which are produced and reproduced by social interactions—and are "inculcated through experience and explicit teaching", yet tend to function at

4730-421: The contraction of cela (demonstrative pronoun "that") to ça is optional and informal. In informal speech, a personal pronoun may sometimes be contracted onto a following verb . For example, je ne sais pas ( IPA: [ʒənəsɛpa] , "I don't know") may be pronounced roughly chais pas ( IPA: [ʃɛpa] ), with the ne being completely elided and the [ʒ] of je being mixed with

4816-489: The death of his son, in 1768; most of the letters were instructive, concerning varied subjects that a worldly gentleman should know. The letters were first published in 1774, by Eugenia Stanhope , the widow of the diplomat Philip Stanhope , Chesterfield's bastard son. Throughout the correspondence, Chesterfield endeavoured to decouple the matter of social manners from conventional morality , with perceptive observations that pragmatically argue to Philip that mastery of etiquette

4902-525: The definite articles o and a (masculine and feminine forms of "the" respectively), producing do , da (of the), pelo , pela (by the). The preposition de contracts with the pronouns ele and ela (he, she), producing dele , dela (his, her). In addition, some verb forms contract with enclitic object pronouns: e.g., the verb amar (to love) combines with the pronoun a (her), giving amá-la (to love her). Another contraction in Portuguese that

4988-459: The early 18th century, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury , wrote influential essays that defined politeness as the art of being pleasing in company; and discussed the function and nature of politeness in the social discourse of a commercial society: 'Politeness' may be defined as dext'rous management of our words and actions, whereby we make other people have better opinion of us and themselves. Periodicals, such as The Spectator ,

5074-469: The editors published articles written by educated authors, which provided topics for civil conversation, and advice on the requisite manners for carrying a polite conversation, and for managing social interactions. Conceptually allied to etiquette is the notion of civility (social interaction characterised by sober and reasoned debate) which for socially ambitious men and women also became an important personal quality to possess for social advancement. In

5160-434: The emotional responses of shame and disgust are innate behaviours. Public health specialist Valerie Curtis said that the development of facial responses was concomitant with the development of manners, which are behaviours with an evolutionary role in preventing the transmission of diseases , thus, people who practise personal hygiene and politeness will most benefit from membership in their social group, and so stand

5246-413: The event, gentlemen's clubs , such as Harrington's Rota Club, published an in-house etiquette that codified the civility expected of the members. Besides The Spectator , other periodicals sought to infuse politeness into English coffeehouse conversation, the editors of The Tatler were explicit that their purpose was the reformation of English manners and morals; to those ends, etiquette was presented as

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5332-572: The faults of others, but avoid falling short, yourself,' in being civilised. Etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics, and at Home (1922), by Emily Post documents the "trivialities" of desirable conduct in daily life, and provided pragmatic approaches to the practice of good manners—the social conduct expected and appropriate for the events of life, such as a baptism , a wedding , and

5418-579: The form Mrs. Miller Smith was sometimes used, with the birth surname in place of the first name. However, the form Mrs. Jane Miller eventually became widely-used for divorcées, even in formal correspondence; that is, Mrs. preceded the divorcée's maiden name. Before social mores relaxed to the point where single women with children were socially acceptable, the unwed mother was often advised by etiquette mavens like Emily Post to use Mrs. with her maiden name to avoid scrutiny. The separation of Miss and Mrs. became problematic as more women entered

5504-419: The functional role that manners play in a society. The categories of manners are based upon the social outcome of behaviour, rather than upon the personal motivation of the behaviour. As a means of social management, the rules of etiquette encompass most aspects of human social interaction; thus, a rule of etiquette reflects an underlying ethical code and a person's fashion and social status . The Book of

5590-435: The group. That pressure of social exclusivity, born from the shift towards communal living , excluded uncooperative people and persons with poor personal hygiene. The threat of social exclusion led people to avoid personal behaviours that might embarrass the group or that might provoke revulsion among the group. To demonstrate the transmission of social conformity , anthropologists Joseph Henrich and Robert Boyd developed

5676-410: The individuals be addressed on separate lines when writing invitations (e.g., "Dr. Sue Martin/Mr. John Martin"). In direct address, a woman with the title Mrs. may be addressed Mrs. [Lastname] , or with the stand-alone Madam or Ma'am , although the latter two are more-often used for any adult woman, regardless of marital status, in modern conversation. It is normally considered correct to address

5762-479: The integrity of the culture. Ideas of pollution, defilement, and disgust are attached to the margins of socially acceptable behaviour in order to curtail unacceptable behaviour, and so maintain "the assumptions by which experience is controlled" within the culture. In studying the expression of emotion by humans and animals, naturalist Charles Darwin noted the universality of facial expressions of disgust and shame among infants and blind people, and concluded that

5848-617: The many dialects of Norwegian and their widespread use it is often difficult to distinguish between non-standard writing of standard Norwegian and eye dialect spelling. It is almost universally true that these spellings try to convey the way each word is pronounced, but it is rare to see language written that does not adhere to at least some of the rules of the official orthography . Reasons for this include words spelled unphonemically, ignorance of conventional spelling rules, or adaptation for better transcription of that dialect's phonemes. Latin contains several examples of contractions. One such case

5934-523: The married title as the default for all women in professional usage. This had long been followed in the United Kingdom for some high-ranking household staff, such as housekeepers, cooks, and nannies , who were called Mrs. as a mark of respect regardless of marital status. In the United Kingdom, the traditional form for a divorcée was Mrs Jane Smith . In the U.S., the divorcée originally retained her full married name unless she remarried. Later,

6020-614: The now-standard form "o'clock"). The main contractions are listed in the following table. Although can't , wouldn't and other forms ending ‑n't clearly started as contractions, ‑n't is now neither a contraction (a cliticized form) nor part of one but instead a negative inflectional suffix. Evidence for this is (i) ‑n't occurs only with auxiliary verbs , and clitics are not limited to particular categories or subcategories; (ii) again unlike contractions, their forms are not rule-governed but idiosyncratic (e.g., will → won't, can → can't ); and (iii) as shown in

6106-543: The object position. In fact, 于/於 '(is) in; at', 曰 'say', and 如 'resemble' are never followed by 之 '(third-person object)' or 此 '(near demonstrative)' in pre- Qin texts. Instead, the respective 'contractions' 爰/焉, 云, and 然 are always used in their place. Nevertheless, no known object pronoun is phonologically appropriate to serve as the hypothetical pronoun that underwent contraction. Hence, many authorities do not consider them to be true contractions. As an alternative explanation for their origin, Edwin G. Pulleyblank proposed that

6192-442: The particle の ( no ) is contracted to simply ん ( n ). When used after verbs ending in the conjunctive form ～て ( -te ), certain auxiliary verbs and their derivations are often abbreviated. Examples: * this abbreviation is never used in the polite conjugation, to avoid the resultant ambiguity between an abbreviated ikimasu (go) and the verb kimasu (come). The ending ～なければ ( -nakereba ) can be contracted to ～なきゃ ( -nakya ) when it

6278-495: The person as a genteel member of the upper class . To identify with the social élite, the upwardly mobile middle class and the bourgeoisie adopted the behaviours and the artistic preferences of the upper class. To that end, socially ambitious people of the middle classes occupied themselves with learning, knowing, and practising the rules of social etiquette, such as the arts of elegant dress and gracious conversation, when to show emotion , and courtesy with and towards women. In

6364-460: The preposition and the article ; for example, von dem becomes vom , zu dem becomes zum , or an das becomes ans . Some of these are so common that they are mandatory. In informal speech, aufm for auf dem , unterm for unter dem , etc. are also used, but would be considered to be incorrect if written, except maybe in quoted direct speech, in appropriate context and style. The pronoun es often contracts to ' s (usually written with

6450-401: The problem was the title Mrs or the husband's first name or the husband's surname. In several languages, the title for married women such as Madame , Señora , Signora , or Frau , is the direct feminine equivalent of the title used for men; the title for unmarried women is a diminutive: Mademoiselle , Señorita , Signorina , or Fräulein . For this reason, usage had shifted toward using

6536-425: The pursuit of justice should be foremost. Yet, in human affairs, the command of a god ultimately prevails in all matters. Some of Ptahhotep's maxims indicate a person's correct behaviours in the presence of great personages (political, military, religious), and instructions on how to choose the right master and how to serve him. Other maxims teach the correct way to be a leader through openness and kindness, that greed

6622-516: The reader that to be a well-mannered person they must practise good manners in their public and private lives. The How Rude! comic-book series addresses and discusses adolescent perspectives and questions of etiquette, social manners, and civility. In commerce, the purpose of etiquette is to facilitate the social relations necessary for realising business transactions; in particular, social interactions among workers, and between labour and management. Business etiquette varies by culture, such as

6708-405: The same meaning.) The Munich-born footballer Franz Beckenbauer has as his catchphrase "Schau mer mal" ("Schauen wir einmal" - in English "We shall see."). A book about his career had as its title the slightly longer version of the phrase, "Schau'n Mer Mal". Such features are found in all central and southern language regions. A sample from Berlin: Sag einmal, Meister, kann man hier einmal hinein?

6794-725: The table, the inflected and "uncontracted" versions may require different positions in a sentence. The Old Chinese writing system ( oracle bone script and bronzeware script ) is well suited for the (almost) one-to-one correspondence between morpheme and glyph . Contractions in which one glyph represents two or more morphemes are a notable exception to that rule. About 20 or so are noted to exist by traditional philologists and are known as jiāncí (兼詞, lit. 'concurrent words'), and more words have been proposed to be contractions by recent scholars , based on recent reconstructions of Old Chinese phonology, epigraphic evidence, and syntactic considerations. For example, 非 [fēi] has been proposed to be

6880-438: The term "abbreviation" in layman’s terms. Contraction is also distinguished from morphological clipping , where beginnings and endings are omitted. The definition overlaps with the term portmanteau (a linguistic blend ), but a distinction can be made between a portmanteau and a contraction by noting that contractions are formed from words that would otherwise appear together in sequence, such as do and not , whereas

6966-477: The various forms of the definite article , namely il , lo , la , l', i , gli , gl', and le . The words ci and è (form of essere , to be) and the words vi and è are contracted into c'è and v'è (both meaning "there is"). The words dove and come are contracted with any word that begins with e , deleting the -e of the principal word, as in "Com'era bello!" – "How handsome he / it was!", "Dov'è il tuo amico?" – "Where's your friend?" The same

7052-506: The virtue of morality and a code of behaviour. In the mid-18th century, the first, modern English usage of etiquette (the conventional rules of personal behaviour in polite society) was by Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield , in the book Letters to His Son on the Art of Becoming a Man of the World and a Gentleman (1774), a correspondence of more than 400 letters written from 1737 until

7138-441: The wife's. Jane Austen gave some of the earliest examples of that form when she wrote of Mrs. John Dashwood. By the early 20th century, that usage was standard, and the forms Mrs Jane Smith , Mrs Miller (wife of John Smith), or Mrs Miller-Smith were considered incorrect by many etiquette writers. Many feminists (such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Lucy Stone , and Charlotte Perkins Gilman ) objected, but they disagreed on whether

7224-460: The word y or en . It is also mandatory to avoid the repetition of a sound when the conjunction si ("if") is followed by il ("he", "it") or ils ("they"), which begin with the same vowel sound i : *si il → s'il ("if it", if he"); *si ils → s'ils ("if they"). Certain prepositions are also mandatorily merged with masculine and plural direct articles: au for à le , aux for à les , du for de le , and des for de les . However,

7310-407: Was an Italian courtier and diplomat , soldier, and author of The Book of the Courtier (1528), an exemplar courtesy book dealing with questions of the etiquette and morality of the courtier during the Italian Renaissance . Louis XIV (1638–1715), King of France, used a codified etiquette to tame the French nobility and assert his supremacy as the absolute monarch of France. In consequence,

7396-402: Was an important means for social advancement, for a man such as he. Chesterfield's elegant, literary style of writing epitomised the emotional restraint characteristic of polite social intercourse in 18th-century society: I would heartily wish that you may often be seen to smile, but never heard to laugh while you live. Frequent and loud laughter is the characteristic of folly and ill-manners; it

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