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104-399: "As a group, defense workers were also poor candidates for individual home ownership because the duration of their employment was uncertain, and because few of them had savings adequate to finance the downpayment on new homes. Recognizing these characteristics, attention was given early to some special form of housing to meet squarely the economic problem of the defense worker and one which, at

208-422: A 30-year rate, as well as set costs for maintenance, taxes, insurance, major repairs, etc. Each share was interchangeable among residents, thus allowing families to easily exchange different size units as family sizes and needs changed over the years. As an added bonus, each member would build ownership equity within the corporation, "since, during the amortization period, the tenant is paying off his share of

312-399: A down payment. With rising home prices in the years from 2000 to 2007, lenders were willing to accept smaller or no down payment (either through 100% financing, seller-assisted down payment assistance, government down payment providers or by providing a combination of an 80% first and 20% second mortgages ) so that more individuals could purchase homes as their primary residences. Currently, in

416-421: A few years earlier—were dusted off. During this relatively brief period of time (1940–1941) just prior to the outbreak of war and its accompanying material shortages and limitations, housing officials had a great deal of freedom to implement these experimental middle-income housing plans. The Housing Act of 1937 directed that initial motivation, maintenance, and partial funding of the housing program originate as

520-494: A home where they are permanently engaged." Of course, not everyone was supportive of the mutual housing concept, and many of these critics were especially powerful and influential individuals. First among these critics was Charles Palmer, the federal government's Defense Housing Coordinator. Palmer was frustrated by his lack of control over the highly decentralized defense housing effort, and from his perspective certain housing programs were wasteful, ineffective and unproductive. This

624-470: A key to the preservation of democracy during the dark days of the Depression . Housing was simply too important a concern to be left only to private industry, labor, or even individual citizens; they believed it was the responsibility of the government to take the lead. Sentiments such as these quickly led to the consideration of public housing programs for those other than just the low-income groups. But

728-456: A movement away from barbarism toward civilization . 18th-century philosopher and political scientist Marquis de Condorcet predicted that political progress would involve the disappearance of slavery , the rise of literacy , the lessening of sex inequality , reform of prisons , which at the time were harsh, and the decline of poverty. Modernity or modernisation was a key form of the idea of progress as promoted by classical liberals in

832-551: A national scale. Many other government agency publications also took a very protective and supportive—some might say radical—tone concerning the newly established United States Housing Authority and its mission: "A clear-cut opposition (to public housing) has been formed of which the spearhead is the Realtor . He sees in this work an invasion of the field of private initiative and contends that Government housing projects subject him to unfair and ruinous competition ... Every attempt

936-467: A need for measures to address these problems. Progressivism has influenced various political movements. Social liberalism was influenced by British liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill 's conception of people being "progressive beings." British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli developed progressive conservatism under one-nation Toryism . In France, the space between social revolution and

1040-511: A non-profit organization, or lender usually set the requirements and conditions for the DPA program. Some programs require you or your loan officer to take a short course on Down Payment Assistance for first time home buyers. Homebuyer assistance programs vary by state and can amount to up to three percent of the loan amount for down payment or closing costs. Some states have special programs supporting home purchases in selected geographic areas. There

1144-656: A number of pressures, factors, and individuals that contributed to the early end of the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division. On November 30, 1941, just eight days prior to the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor and the start of direct United States involvement in the Second World War, tenants of the last mutual ownership project ( Winfield Park, New Jersey ) began to move into their new homes. The outbreak of war ignited

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1248-402: A range of diverse political pressure groups , not always united, progressives rejected social Darwinism , believing that the problems society faced, such as class warfare , greed , poverty , racism and violence , could best be addressed by providing good education, a safe environment, and an efficient workplace. Progressives lived mainly in the cities, were college educated, and believed in

1352-517: A standard that would be suitable for permanent residence, because in that way the Government has the best chance of recouping its investment by the sale of the homes, and, of course, this (mutual ownership plan) is different in that respect from many of these housing projects, because these are built from the standpoint of sale and recouping the expenditure insofar as possible, at the same time affording an opportunity to these industrial workers to get

1456-687: A strong central government. President Theodore Roosevelt of the Republican Party and later the Progressive Party declared that he "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand." President Woodrow Wilson was also a member of the American progressive movement within the Democratic Party . Progressive stances have evolved. Imperialism was a controversial issue within progressivism in

1560-532: Is being made to restrict competition with private enterprise to that restricted field where operators exploit the misery of the underprivileged . Here the competition is deliberate and amply justified." Many public housing officials in the Roosevelt Administration were progressives , and had strong convictions about the right of all citizens to inexpensive, quality housing. The provision of decent housing seemed to many of these officials to be

1664-487: Is classified as a (cultural or social) progressive party, but it calls itself "economically centrist and socially liberal". Economic progressivism —also New Progressive Economics —is a term used to distinguish it from progressivism in cultural fields. Economic progressives may draw from a variety of economic traditions, including democratic capitalism , democratic socialism , social democracy , and social liberalism . Overall, economic progressives' views are rooted in

1768-603: Is more risk for lenders when individuals purchase a home as an investment property. Therefore, the lender may charge a higher interest rate and expect a higher down payment. Progressives Progressivism is a left-leaning political philosophy and reform movement that seeks to advance the human condition through social reform – primarily based on purported advancements in social organization , science , and technology . Adherents hold that progressivism has universal application and endeavor to spread this idea to human societies everywhere. Progressivism arose during

1872-685: Is readily available. Unfortunately, Colonel Westbrook did not possess many of the organizational or management skills necessary to successfully and efficiently supervise his division. On two separate occasions the mutual housing program's projects and efforts were brought before the scrutiny of the Truman Committee investigating waste and corruption in the National Defense Program. Contractors for mutual housing projects in New Jersey did particularly poor jobs and completed

1976-538: Is the philosophy which the entire country seems to be adopting, that if the risk is not good, let the government take it. That is nothing more than a refinement of the old thought that the world owes you a living." 6. There are many hidden costs in a mutual housing project - especially related to the public works being provided by the Federal Works Administration (FWA) - which make each unit far more expensive than indicated, and far in excess of

2080-402: Is to be wherever feasible of a permanent nature, and after the emergency has passed these homes are to be disposed of, and in that way the Government is to recoup the initial investment ... and they will be available for permanent homes." The cost per unit was set at, and not permitted to exceed, $ 3000. By its very nature, defense housing was primarily constructed for the middle-income employees of

2184-465: Is unable to meet his monthly payments, the equity can be drawn upon to tide him over." This equity could also be available to the corporation as an emergency fund. In a mutual home ownership corporation, rents are kept low by creating an economy of scale . There are also savings for mass-construction, improved land use, centralized facilities, operating economies, and maintaining a non-profit status. Costs can also be contained—although controversially—by

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2288-715: The Age of Enlightenment out of the belief that civility in Europe was improving due to the application of new empirical knowledge . In modern political discourse, progressivism is often associated with social liberalism , a left-leaning type of liberalism, and social democracy . Within economic progressivism , there is some ideological variety on the social liberal to social democrat continuum, as well as occasionally some variance on cultural issues; examples of this include some Christian democrat and conservative-leaning communitarian movements. While many ideologies can fall under

2392-867: The Social Gospel emerged in North America that focused on challenging economic exploitation and poverty and, by the mid-1890s, was common in many Protestant theological seminaries in the United States. Early 20th-century progressivism included support for American engagement in World War I and the creation of and participation in the League of Nations , compulsory sterilisation in Scandinavia, and eugenics in Great Britain, and

2496-863: The United States Housing Authority (the Authority had essentially been put out of business by the June 1940 defense housing amendment to the 1937 Housing Act): "Next, the Federal Works Agency, no doubt pressed hard by other eager outstretched hands, sought still additional methods of getting defense housing done. Some money was made available to the Farm Security Administration , to the Tennessee Valley Authority , and within

2600-543: The founders of the American Republic , whereby the authority of government depends on observing limitations on its just powers. What began as a social movement in the 1890s grew into a popular political movement referred to as the Progressive era ; in the 1912 United States presidential election , all three U.S. presidential candidates claimed to be progressives. While the term progressivism represents

2704-610: The socialist movement of the time and as humane ways to assist in maintaining the Industrial Revolution . In 1891, the Roman Catholic Church encyclical Rerum novarum issued by Pope Leo XIII condemned the exploitation of labor and urged support for labor unions and government regulation of businesses in the interests of social justice while upholding the property right and criticising socialism. A progressive Protestant outlook called

2808-535: The socially conservative laissez-faire centre-right was filled with the emergence of radicalism which thought that social progress required anti-clericalism , humanism , and republicanism . Especially anti-clericalism was the dominant influence on the centre-left in many French- and Romance-speaking countries until the mid-20th century. In Imperial Germany , Chancellor Otto von Bismarck enacted various progressive social welfare measures out of paternalistic conservative motivations to distance workers from

2912-408: The temperance movement . Progressives believed that progress was stifled by economic inequality , inadequately regulated monopolistic corporations, and conflict between workers and elites, arguing that corrective measures were needed. In the United States, progressivism began as an intellectual rebellion against the political philosophy of Constitutionalism as expressed by John Locke and

3016-518: The 1937 United States Housing Act was amended, instructing the USHA to waive income requirements for potential public housing residents, and to apply all remaining monies from low-income housing projects into efforts to house defense workers. Additionally, monies were made available for defense housing through the President's Emergency Defense Fund. In July 1940, President Roosevelt created the position of

3120-590: The 19th and 20th centuries, who called for the rapid modernisation of the economy and society to remove the traditional hindrances to free markets and the free movements of people. In the late 19th century, a political view rose in popularity in the Western world that progress was being stifled by vast economic inequality between the rich and the poor, minimally regulated laissez-faire capitalism with out-of-control monopolistic corporations , intense and often violent conflict between capitalists and workers, with

3224-645: The 20% amortization point. Testifying before Congress in the summer of 1941, Colonel Westbrook outlined the following advantages that he believed would result from the implementation of the Mutual Housing program: Advantages for Workers Advantages for the Government Advantages for the Host Community Among the first groups to support (and continue to support) the plans of the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division

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3328-450: The Authority's first efforts was the implementation of a public relations campaign to establish popular support for the housing program that would help blunt attacks from the construction industry and other enemies. Public Housing was a highly polished monthly publication distributed as part of this public relations campaign. This publication not only discussed the benefits and justifications of public housing programs, but charted progress on

3432-477: The Congress be used in part to further such experimentations." Another very important and powerful supporter of mutual housing was Senator Lanham himself, who stated the following during a March 1941 hearing before Congress: "My understanding of the original (Lanham Act) was that it was not the purpose to make (homes) ideal, but it was the purpose to build them in areas where they could be used permanently and of

3536-669: The Defense Housing Coordinator to oversee the new defense housing effort. Out of political necessity this position possessed only limited authority, and the Coordinator was instructed by the Presidential directive to fit the defense housing program into the decentralized public housing program already in existence since the 1930s. Real authority for the Defense Housing effort would remain vested in

3640-612: The FWA and its administrator, John Carmody (This administrative structure would last only until early 1942, when wartime limitations not only permitted but necessitated far greater centralization.) The establishment of the defense housing program accelerated quickly after the passage of National Housing for Defense Act of 1940 (also known as the Lanham Act) by Congress on October 14, 1940, which provided $ 140,000,000 for defense housing construction. The Lanham Act specified that, "The housing

3744-542: The FWA itself another unit was set up, the Mutual Ownership Division of Defense Housing, under Col. Westbrook. I don't know exactly what they do, sir." But then he became very critical of Title IV of the Lanham Act. He stated that he viewed Title IV as a: "... device evolved by the Defense Housing Coordinator to utilize the desperate need of defense workers for shelter in order to force them into

3848-473: The FWA to overrule local resistance and regulations in order to expedite the provision of defense housing. Residents of host communities would continue to be fearful that their new neighbors would be a lower class of people (no matter how similar to themselves they actually may have been), while also feeling resentful that others seemed to be getting a tax supported subsidy for housing when they themselves had worked "long and hard" to obtain their homes. There were

3952-443: The Federal Works Agency (FWA) was established with the aim of consolidating all government public works programs, including those for public housing, into one agency . This new agency became responsible for the United States Housing Authority (USHA), its planning and operations; under a great deal of pressure, the FWA promptly filed away the newly developed plans for middle-income housing initiatives. However, few of those involved in

4056-623: The NHA had destroyed the mutual housing program even at a time when requests for expansion of the program were pouring in from across the nation. Although news of the mutual housing concept had spread quickly through the labor union network, and many committees had been organized by workers to aid the implementation of the plan locally, all committees had to be told that the program was experimental in nature and no more staff could be made available to work with them. During its short period of existence neither financial nor personnel resources were provided at

4160-580: The United States Government a full return on its investment ... and could ... provide good living space in a good established locality, where you can have an investment in the locality, not down in some slum-clearance district, homes where people can live for many years." Another representative stated in a July 1941, hearing that: "Study of this project by the CIO housing committee has confirmed our view that it (mutual housing program) points

4264-574: The United States, the Department of Veterans Affairs offers complete financing for qualifying veterans. The USDA Home Loan program also offers complete mortgage loans with no down payment. These loans are available as direct or guaranteed loans and are offered to qualifying borrowers purchasing a home in a more rural area. Most state finance housing agencies offer down payment assistance. Down Payment Assistance programs are all different with certain requirements for each. State or local housing authorities,

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4368-558: The banner of progressivism, both the current and historical movement are characterized by a critique of unregulated capitalism, desiring a more active democratic government to take a role in safeguarding human rights , bringing about cultural development , and being a check-and-balance on corporate monopolies . There are differences in specific approaches between factions, including capitalist-leaning social liberals and social democrats versus some anti-capitalist democratic socialists . Immanuel Kant identified progress as being

4472-555: The borrower's finances are sound, and that the borrower is not borrowing beyond his or her means. If the borrower is unable to pay off the loan in its entirety, the down payment amount is forfeited. In the United States , down payments for home purchases typically vary between 3.5% and 20% of the purchase price. The Federal Housing Administration has advocated lower down payments since its inception in 1934, and, currently, borrowers that qualify for an FHA loan pay only 3.5% for

4576-458: The community less vulnerable to economic crisis, while the differing family sizes and space needs allowed for flexibility in housing requirements. Plans called for the final selling price of the Mutual Housing project to be set through negotiations between two separate appraisers —one representing the federal government and the other representing the Corporation—and title would be transferred at

4680-462: The concept of social justice and the common good , and aim to improve the human condition through government regulation , social protections and the maintenance of public goods . Some economic progressives may show centre-right views on cultural issues. These movements are related to communitarian conservative movements such as Christian democracy and one-nation conservatism . An early mention of techno-progressivism appeared in 1999 as

4784-502: The conception of the Division; through the development of its eight projects;, and to its demise at the hands of inept management, wartime limitations and shortages, and attacks from powerful enemies was only a short few years. By the conclusion of the Second World War, the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division was all but forgotten. The Division's eight projects were presented by critics as unworkable and highly unattractive projects in

4888-409: The construction of Audubon Park , built just outside Camden. For many years the entire program itself was better known as the "Camden Plan." In a Congressional hearing during March 1941, a union representative stated that: "In the opinion of the overwhelming majority of the workers, who will live in the homes, the (Mutual Ownership) plan, with a few minor changes, is absolutely foolproof and can assure

4992-470: The critics of the program included the following: 1. Temporary short term housing should be destroyed at the end of the emergency period. This was viewed as far more appropriate than attempting to plan for the long term in the midst of a crisis. Senator Kilburn stated that, "It is my contention that they (defense workers) are taking advantage of the situation to feather their own nests." 2. The defense housing problem could more efficiently be handled through

5096-535: The defense housing problem, were also strong supporters of the mutual housing program and wrote the following in their final report to Congress: "After study of the details of a plan of mutual home ownership this committee believes that such a plan includes many advantageous features in the planning, financing and construction of houses for defense workers ... So that further experimentation in this direction may be undertaken, this committee urges that funds be made available for defense housing under future appropriations by

5200-406: The defense industry. The Act also empowered the Federal Works Agency (FWA) to overrule local governmental resistance and regulations in order to expedite construction. Additionally, it ensured that the host communities of defense housing projects would receive payments from the federal government, in lieu of taxes "equivalent to full ad valorem tax , less the cost of any municipal services provided by

5304-471: The democratic process. The unifying theme is to call attention to the negative impacts of current institutions or ways of doing things and to advocate for social progress , i.e., for positive change as defined by any of several standards such as the expansion of democracy , increased egalitarianism in the form of economic and social equality as well as improved well being of a population. Proponents of social democracy have identified themselves as promoting

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5408-498: The design process forgot about these innovative ideas, and hoped that one day they would be reconsidered. The 1940s began in a state of global crisis as the European and Asian Wars began rapidly expanding into what would eventually be known as World War II . The United States , although officially neutral , was busily taking defensive measures to ensure national security, while also attempting to assist friendly nations already in

5512-541: The economic and political environment of the post-war period. But almost seventy years later, all but one (Dallas Park) of these projects is reported as continuing to operate as highly successful mutual housing corporations. The passage by the United States Congress of the Housing Act of 1937 can be thought of as a reaction to criticisms of earlier New Deal low-income housing programs operated through

5616-423: The emergency guidelines and policies outlined by the Lanham Act, the goals of the FWA, the availability of necessary resources, and the decentralized administrative structure for the development of public housing all contributed to an ideal environment for experimentation in public middle-income housing. The mutual housing concept was taken off the shelf, to be tried as an experimental community. An entirely new office

5720-402: The extent to which the lender is protected against the various factors that might reduce the value of the collateral, as well as lost profits between the time of the last payment and the eventual sale of the collateral. Furthermore, making a down payment demonstrates that the borrower is able to raise a certain amount of money for long-term investment, which the lender may desire as evidence that

5824-408: The facilities." 3. To provide to employees housing of a quality and standard that "benefits the defense personnel for whom the housing is constructed, and for the purpose of realizing the maximum permanent public benefit to be derived from the new housing." The concept behind mutual home ownership was developed in the late 1930s and filed away by the FWA as were other middle income housing plans. But

5928-505: The federal government providing all necessary public works (i.e. sewers, streets, curbs, sidewalks) through the Works Progress Administration (WPA). According to Colonel Lawrence Westbrook, membership in the community should be based on a process in which individuals of predominantly similar income groups from a cross-section of area occupations, and from different age groups, are selected. These demographics made

6032-498: The federal government. In support of this effort, a well-developed public relations campaign was begun to promote and explain the need for public housing, and to establish popular support for the program. Some administrators of the housing program were not satisfied with assisting only the lower-income groups. They asked why programs could not be expanded to assist the middle-income groups in finding decent, affordable housing . Able to afford higher rents, yet often unable to accumulate

6136-489: The formal outbreak of war, the entire defense housing program, under pressure from Congressional conservatives and industry officials, began to make a significant switch to private sector initiatives to get the defense housing job done. Supporters of this new direction strongly believed that private industry was far more efficient, and ".. could utilize a few lots here and a favorably located site there, wholly unsuitable for large-scale Government projects." Congressional support of

6240-462: The government backed mortgage over a 45-year period through monthly payments that included a 3% interest charge on the unpaid balance. Each of the project's residents would be a member of the corporation, and receive a contract from the corporation entitling him/her to perpetual use of his/her unit and one share of stock in the corporation. The monthly payment made by each member to the corporation would include individual amortization payments based on

6344-740: The government by their residents and continue to operate as mutual home corporations as of 2009. The Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division projects can be considered a rare but important example of successful public housing within the United States. During its very brief existence - from the autumn of 1940 to the winter of 1942 - the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division built the following eight projects. Additional Mutual Ownership Defense Housing projects were planned but never built in Alcoa, Tennessee (250 units); Long Beach, California (600 units); Beaumont, Texas (600 units); Buffalo, New York (1,050 units); Coatesville, Pennsylvania (400 units). By

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6448-418: The government creation of middle-income housing projects was viewed by many members of the nation's building and real estate industry to be a much larger threat to their livelihood than that designed for the lower-income group. Although pressure from these groups did not stop the development of innovative middle-income housing programs, it did stop those programs from being implemented during the 1930s. In 1939,

6552-460: The highest bidder? Every one of the emergencies in the past shows that this has been done." 4. The mutual housing program is good for city dwellers, but provides no solution for the severe housing needs of rural farmers who were also working for the defense program, but often living in squalid surroundings. 5. The federal government should not have to assume the risk for housing its citizens. According to Senator Johnson, "The thing that alarms me

6656-441: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the United States, where some progressives supported American imperialism while others opposed it. In response to World War I , President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points established the concept of national self-determination and criticised imperialist competition and colonial injustices. Anti-imperialists supported these views in areas resisting imperial rule. During

6760-408: The loan, the lender is legally entitled to sell the asset and retain enough of the proceeds to repay the remaining balance on the loan, including fees and interest added. A down payment, in this case, reduces the lender's risk to less than the value of the collateral, making it more likely that the lender will recover the full amount in the event of default. The size of the down payment thus determines

6864-474: The local level. The federal government would now provide loans and subsidy assistance to local public housing agencies for the construction and operation of projects for "families whose incomes are so low that they cannot afford adequate housing provided by private enterprise." Those involved actively with public housing were generally pleased with this readjustment in operations. One federal publication stated that ".. we must remember that in 1931, Government housing

6968-438: The maximum allowable dollar amount specified by the Lanham Act. Senator Shelton stated that, "..if you put in a public housing job by Lanham funds, and you ask the cost of it, and it comes to $ 3200 a unit, the public housing sponsors do not count in the FWA that did the excavations and the landscaping and we do not count the sewers that are $ 8 a running foot, and if it was all counted in and it was properly appraised and capitalized,

7072-672: The middle of the 1930s the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration began to bring attention to the housing plight of lower-income groups in the United States . Many of the New Deal administrators became convinced that decent housing was the right of every citizen, and believed it the duty of the government to find ways to provide such housing. A decentralized lower-income housing program was developed, which relied heavily on local community involvement, organization, and input. Financial and administrative support for this initiative were provided by

7176-571: The midst of the fighting through measures such as the Lend-Lease program with Great Britain . The corresponding expansion of defense industries, especially those located along coastal areas, and the massive migration of workers into these booming regions, created a serious housing shortage that demanded immediate government intervention. On June 20, 1940, the Congress passed the National Defense Bill. Shortly thereafter, on June 28,

7280-491: The mortgage in 30 years, rather than the 45 years allowed the corporation, he is in effect enabling the corporation to make prepayments on the principal owed to the Government. In this way he builds up an equity, or cash value, equal to the original value of the house, less depreciation and less the amount of principal still unpaid. Should he wish to withdraw from the project the equity is returnable to him in cash. Moreover, if for hardship reasons such as unemployment or illness he

7384-527: The necessary levels to effectively support and operate the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division. The eight projects undertaken were far more than the Division could handle with its limited resources. Claims and investigations of mismanagement of the Division were partially related to Westbrook's weak supervisory abilities, but they were also due to oversights and mistakes made by a small, overworked staff trying to do more than it could efficiently do, in an unsupportive environment. In addition, problems at many of

7488-484: The new people moving into their community. Congress began reacting to the financial fears of potential defense housing host communities early in 1941 by passing an amendment to the Lanham Act that provided additional resources for the expansion of public facilities (i.e. schools, government offices, libraries, feeder roads, sewers, etc.) in these communities. Congress also anticipated the fears and concerns host communities would have about defense housing projects and empowered

7592-524: The office of the Federal Emergency Administrator of Public Works. Many officials were concerned about the over-centralization and disregard for local involvement and control in these early experimental programs. The Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Program, as designed by Westbrook and his team, called for government construction of houses or apartments to be occupied—and eventually owned—by middle-income defense workers. A key to

7696-468: The outrageously inept planning, construction and supervision of the 700-home project financed by the Government to house war workers from nearby Kearny, N.J. shipyards." The very nature and concept of the mutual housing program was threatening to other government housing officials because it would result in a further division of limited resources, and because it called for the ultimate disposal of projects through direct purchase by its residents; although this

7800-526: The period of acceptance of economic Keynesianism (the 1930s–1970s), there was widespread acceptance in many nations of a large role for state intervention in the economy. With the rise of neoliberalism and challenges to state interventionist policies in the 1970s and 1980s, centre-left progressive movements responded by adopting the Third Way , which emphasised a major role for the market economy . There have been social democrats who have called for

7904-409: The plan was the commitment made by the federal government to sell the projects, at the conclusion of the emergency period, to a non-profit Mutual Housing Corporation made up of the projects' residents. This cooperative , non-profit corporation would be initially supported and advised by the government and later turned over completely to the members. This corporation would be responsible for amortizing

8008-412: The principal governmental agency responsible for construction, maintenance and disposal of defense housing constructed prior to 1942, established three goals for its efforts: 1. To provide housing to defense workers as quickly as was possible. 2. To provide housing to defense workers as inexpensively as possible, "in accordance with the permanent or temporary character of the need and prospective uses of

8112-412: The private construction industry came in the legislative form of Title IV of the Lanham Act, passed in the spring of 1941. This legislation provided 100% financing for speculative builders of housing for workers in defense areas. Obviously Title IV was meant to serve the same housing market as the mutual housing program. Evidence also suggests that the staff of the NHA was far more conservative than had been

8216-686: The private market. The mutual housing program just competes with, and hurts the private developers. Senator Bell asked: "I am just wondering ... if people earning between $ 160 and $ 200 a month or less regularly and are permanently employed, (could have their housing needs) handled through channels of private industry? Aren't there plenty of builders and finance available for construction of homes of that character?" The New Jersey Realtors' Board President wrote an editorial published in local newspapers stating, " ..The USHA no longer can attempt to justify subsidized, socialized housing ... with defense activity providing new employment at good wages, and financiers alert to

8320-655: The program's emphasis. But the mutual housing program was based on long-term financial planning for the construction of permanent housing, and could not function with this new temporary construction emphasis. Support for centralizing the defense housing effort was also increasing, and resulted in the February 24, 1942 establishment of the National Housing Agency by Executive Order of the President. Those individuals sympathetic to centralization were not very supportive of experimental housing programs. Even prior to

8424-469: The program, rather than watch it be dismantled. Downpayment In accounting , a down payment (also called a deposit in British English) is an initial up-front partial payment for the purchase of expensive goods or services such as a car or a house. It is usually paid in cash or equivalent at the time of finalizing the transaction . A loan of some sort is then required to finance

8528-416: The progressive cause. Progressivism, in the general sense, mainly means social and cultural progressivism. The term cultural liberalism is used in a substantially similar context and can be said to be a synonym for cultural progressivism. Unlike progressives in a broader sense, some cultural progressives may be economically centrist , conservative , or politically libertarian . The Czech Pirate Party

8632-513: The project". During the war years the Lanham Act was regularly amended by Congress in order to provide additional funds for housing and to adjust various aspects of the Act, especially its impact on local communities. By 1945, almost 9,000,000 individuals had been provided with housing. Total costs approached $ 7.5 billion ($ 5.2 billion private financing and $ 2.3 billion public financing), with the average unit costing $ 4,566.00. The Federal Works Agency, as

8736-446: The projects substantially over budget. Bids were also badly mishandled by the Mutual Ownership Division. Senator Truman himself became so disgusted by the management of the mutual housing program that in answer to a witness' statement that he did not know exactly what the Mutual Ownership Division did, Truman was recorded as saying that, "They (Mutual Ownership Division) don't either, so proceed." Other significant contentions expressed by

8840-652: The projects—especially those in New Jersey—provided a lot of ammunition to critics of the mutual housing effort. Once publicized, these difficulties generated a large political and public backlash against the project. On November 30, 1942, Life Magazine provided its readers with a photographic exposé on the Truman Committee's investigation of the Winfield Park Project, which reported: "These hearings are to establish and fix responsibility for

8944-400: The purchase of a home ... The result of the enactment of this bill would be to give away millions of public funds to speculative builders to enable them to sell homes on the installment plan to workers whose probable inability to meet the installments is the very justification urged for enactment of the bill." Either Strauss knew as little as he indicated about the mutual housing program, or he

9048-419: The remainder of the payment. The main purposes of a down payment is to ensure that the lending institution has enough capital to create money for a loan in fractional reserve banking systems and to recover some of the balance due on the loan in the event that the borrower defaults . In real estate , the asset is used as collateral in order to secure the loan against default. If the borrower fails to repay

9152-451: The removal of "all political, cultural, biological, and psychological limits to self-actualization and self-realization". According to techno-progressivism, scientific and technical aspects of progress are linked to ethical and social developments in society. Therefore, according to the majority of techno-progressive viewpoints, advancements in science and technology will not be considered proper progress until and unless they are accompanied by

9256-402: The required down payments for ownership , members of the middle-income group found it very difficult, if not impossible, to make the jump from renting a house to owning it. Affordable housing plans were developed but were unable to garner the necessary support within government circles, and they were filed away to await a time when the environment would be right for implementation. Surprisingly,

9360-482: The rising home market, there can be no justification for another such (mutual housing) project in New Jersey." 3. The residents of a mutual ownership project will simply leave the project at the end of the emergency, taking their equity with them, and selling the whole project to speculators. Senator Kirman asked a resident of one of the projects "... don't you think you will take the whole thing and hock it off to

9464-437: The same time, might lead to an ultimate solution of the housing problems of millions of other American families of similar economic status." Limited staffing resources within the Division also resulted in poor management practices, and a number of the projects were investigated for cost overruns and poor construction standards. Although only eight projects were ever built by the Division, all but one were eventually purchased from

9568-411: The smoldering debate over permanent vs. temporary housing for the defense workers. Early shortages of materials, equipment, and manpower for construction, along with the early retreat of allied forces on all fronts, added support to the argument that emergency housing should be only of temporary nature, and not built in support of long-term postwar goals. The construction of temporary housing quickly became

9672-574: The social-democratic movement to move past Third Way. Prominent progressive conservative elements in the British Conservative Party have criticised neoliberalism. In the 21st century, progressives continue to favour public policy that they theorise will reduce or lessen the harmful effects of economic inequality as well as systemic discrimination such as institutional racism ; to advocate for social safety nets and workers' rights ; and to oppose corporate influence on

9776-512: The staff of the FWA. This swing to the right was completed when 700 members of the consolidated staff were laid off; many of those leaving were among the most progressive, and many programs, including the mutual housing program, were officially ended. This newly consolidated agency moved quickly to develop programs that were especially supportive of private initiative programs for solving the defense housing need, and generally supportive of Title IV. Colonel Lawrence Westbrook noted in 1945 testimony that

9880-407: The structure would cost $ 5000 ..." By far the most persistent critics of the mutual housing program—and many other defense housing programs—were residents of the host communities where the projects were being built, or being planned. The residents feared additional financial burdens to be imposed on them for expanding public facilities. They were also very concerned about the quality and background of

9984-501: The wait was not long. Just prior to direct American involvement in World War II , the nation entered an emergency period of military buildup that required the development of housing for the middle-income defense workers then streaming into defense plants across the country. The nation's entire public housing program needed to adjust quickly to the needs of the middle-income worker, and the proposals for housing programs—filed away just

10088-487: The way toward a proper answer to the problem of housing permanent workers in established industrial communities." and "This plan is the best and most efficient type of public housing) with the most satisfactory relationships with the occupant workers, and the least ultimate expense to the Government." The National Committee on the Housing Emergency, a private group set up to examine all potential solutions to

10192-456: Was a very innovative concept in the United States, it would result in the reduction in the number of these same government managers and administers. The mutual housing concept was also not easily understood, contributing to the lack of support or remorse at the prospect of the demise of the program. An illustration is the October 29, 1941 Congressional testimony of Nathan Strauss, Administrator of

10296-407: Was deliberately obfuscating , since a successful and growing mutual home ownership program would have pushed housing programs in a completely different direction from those already under way at the USHA. There was also a great deal of discussion about the legality of the mutual housing program. This discussion was sparked by Charles Palmer, the Defense Housing Coordinator, during 1941, although there

10400-496: Was especially true of experimental housing programs like the mutual housing program. Although not directly able to stop the program, Palmer was in a position to hamper the program's progress. Palmer went so far as to declare the program itself to be illegal—although never specifying how it was so—and made himself readily accessible and helpful to organizations protesting the siting of mutual housing projects within their communities. Evidence supporting Palmer's contention of wastefulness

10504-439: Was established by FWA in support of this effort. Headed by Colonel Lawrence Westbrook , this office was known as the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division. One of the United States government's plans for middle-class housing was the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division of the Federal Works Agency (also sometimes referred to as the "Camden Plan" in honor of the city closest to the first project at Audubon, New Jersey). From

10608-506: Was never any clear statement of an actual legal problem related to the mutual housing program. On a number of occasions the Legal Counsel of the FWA and Westbrook were asked to defend the legality of the program. They announced that they could not find any violation of the law. But the question itself, posed by the Defense Housing Coordinator, created a number of doubts among influential individuals who could have protected and encouraged

10712-430: Was only a dream of progressives . Today it is a fact and there is strong reason to believe that, in the near future, it will be recognized as a permanent necessity ..." The United States Housing Authority (USHA) was soon established to facilitate the implementation of the Housing Act of 1937 . The USHA was charged with the responsibility for the development and administration of all federal public housing programs. One of

10816-632: Was the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America, a member union of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Representatives from the Kearny, New Jersey , Local spoke before Congress in support of initiatives put in place by the Lanham Act, while representatives of the Camden, New Jersey , Local were among the first to benefit from the mutual housing program itself, with

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