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96-489: Muang Sua, nowadays known as Luang Prabang , was named in 698 following its conquest, by the Lao prince Khun Lo , who awarded the town to his father Khun Borom , the legendary progenitor of the Lao race. In the second half of the eighth century, Nanzhao intervened frequently in the affairs of the principalities of the middle Mekong Valley , resulting in the occupation of Muang Sua in 709. Nanzhao princes or administrators replaced

192-452: A Buddhist monastery outside the Mongol realm for safety. The brothers were kidnapped in 1335 and taken to Angkor, where they were entrusted to King Jayavarman IX , whose kingdom had acknowledged Mongol suzerainty since 1285. The younger brother, Fa Ngum , married one of the king's daughters and in 1349 set out from Angkor at the head of a 10,000-man army. His conquest of the territories to

288-528: A bevy of attendants make him comfortable with the aid of parasols and fans. Following the death of Suryavarman around 1150 AD, the kingdom fell into a period of internal strife. Its neighbors to the east, the Cham of what is now southern Vietnam, took advantage of the situation in 1177 to launch a water-borne invasion up the Mekong River and across Tonlé Sap . The Cham forces were successful in sacking

384-537: A city in north central Laos , consisting of 58 adjacent villages, of which 33 comprise the UNESCO Town of Luang Prabang World Heritage Site . It was listed in 1995 for unique and remarkably well preserved architectural, religious and cultural heritage, a blend of the rural and urban developments over several centuries, including the French colonial influences during the 19th and 20th centuries. The centre of

480-518: A coup d'état that was probably instigated by the Mongols and that exiled his father. Upon his father's death in 1316, Panya Khamphong assumed his throne. Ram Khamhaeng , an early ruler of the new Thai dynasty in Sukhothai, made himself the agent of Mongol interests, and in 1282-84 eliminated the vestiges of Khmer and Cham power in central Laos. Ramkhamhaeng obtained the allegiance of Muang Sua and

576-554: A high degree of connectivity and functional integration with the urban core. In terms of spatial extent (although not in terms of population), this makes it the largest urban agglomeration in recorded history prior to the Industrial Revolution , easily surpassing the nearest claim by the Maya city of Tikal . At its peak, the city occupied an area greater than modern Paris , and its buildings use far more stone than all of

672-408: A lingam named Indresvara . Another inscription tells us that Indravarman erected eight lingams in his courts and that they were named for the "eight elements of Shiva". Similarly, Rajendravarman , whose reign began in 944 AD, constructed the temple of Pre Rup , the central tower of which housed the royal lingam called Rajendrabhadresvara . In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu

768-511: A mile long on each side, Angkor Wat grandly portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers representing Mount Meru , home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond. The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods, and his residence with that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The measurements themselves of

864-482: A nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, with Luang Prabang as its capital but on 7 April 1945 two battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city. The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong (the King of Luang Prabang) to declare Laotian independence but on 8 April he instead simply declared an end to Laos' status as a French protectorate. The King then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to

960-408: A record of early monsoons that passed through this area. From this study, we can tell that during the 14th–15th centuries monsoons were weakened and eventually followed by extreme flooding. Their inability to adapt their flooding infrastructure may have led to its eventual decline. Recent research by Australian archaeologists suggests that the decline may have been due to a shortage of water caused by

1056-461: A result, Angkorian civilization suffered from a reduced economic base, and the population was forced to scatter. Other scholars attempting to account for the rapid decline and abandonment of Angkor have hypothesized natural disasters such as disease (Bubonic Plague), earthquakes, inundations, or drastic climate changes as the relevant agents of destruction. A study of tree rings in Vietnam produced

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1152-477: A serpent. After consolidating his political position through military campaigns, diplomacy, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman launched into the construction of Angkor Wat as his personal temple mausoleum. Breaking with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced perhaps by the concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple to Vishnu rather than to Siva . With walls nearly half

1248-529: A transition in the state religion from Hinduism to Mahayana Buddhism , since Jayavarman himself had adopted the latter as his personal faith. During Jayavarman's reign, Hindu temples were altered to display images of the Buddha , and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist shrine. Following his death, the revival of Hinduism as the state religion included a large-scale campaign of desecrating Buddhist images, and continued until Theravada Buddhism became established as

1344-663: A war, in which the entire population had been obligated to participate. After the collapse of Angkor in 1431, many statues were taken to the Ayutthaya capital of Ayutthaya in the west. Others departed for the new center of Khmer society at Longvek , southeast of Angkor in Kampong Tralach district . The official capital later moved, first in 1618 to Oudong around 45 kilometres (28 mi) from Phnom Penh in Ponhea Leu District , and eventually in 1865 to

1440-488: A warlike ruler who may have been a Kammu (alternate spellings include Khamu and Khmu) tribesman, extended his territory as a result of the warring of these principalities and probably ruled from 1128 to 1169. The family of Khun Chuang reinstituted the Lao administrative system of the 7th century. Muang Sua next became the Kingdom of Sri Sattanak, a name connected with the legend of the naga (mythical snake or water dragon) who

1536-414: A year by 2014. This poses additional conservation problems but has also provided financial assistance to the restoration effort. With the increased growth in tourism at Angkor, new hotels and restaurants are being built to accommodate such growth. Each new construction project drills underground to reach the water table , which has a limited storage capacity. This demand on the water table could undermine

1632-450: Is also an important transportation link. At Chiang Khong it is possible to hire a barge to cross the river. A trip from Huay Xai , across from Thailand, downstream to Luang Prabang takes two days by slow boat, typically with a stop at Pakbeng . Beginning December 2021, Luang Prabang is served by the high speed Vientiane–Boten railway . The railway parallels Route 13, and serve as Laos' first major north–south railway line, from Boten at

1728-494: Is collectively protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The popularity of the site among tourists presents multiple challenges to the preservation of the ruins. In 2007, an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world by surface area, with an elaborate infrastructure system connecting an urban sprawl of at least 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi) to

1824-577: Is part of Luang Prabang District of Luang Prabang Province and is the capital and administrative centre of the province. It lies approximately 300 km (190 mi) north of the capital Vientiane . Currently, the population of the city as a whole is roughly 56,000 inhabitants with the UNESCO protected site being inhabited by around 24,000. By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create

1920-734: The Allied forces and Sisavang Vatthana as representative to the Japanese. Following Japan's surrender to the Allies, Free French forces were sent to reoccupy Laos and entered Luang Prabang on 25 August, at which time the King assured the French that Laos remained a French colonial protectorate. In September the Chinese Nationalist forces arrived to receive the surrender of the remaining Japanese forces but also quickly set about buying up

2016-562: The Dvaravati kingdoms . In the north, Haripunjaya ( Lamphun ) emerged as a rival power to the Dvaravati . By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, in Fa Daet (modern Kalasin , northeastern Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modern Tha Khek , Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi ( Vientiane ). In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong)

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2112-467: The Khmer Hindu monarch Jayavarman II declared himself a "universal monarch" and " god-king ", and lasted until the late 14th century, first falling under Ayutthayan suzerainty in 1351. A Khmer rebellion against Siamese authority resulted in the 1431 sacking of Angkor by Ayutthaya, causing its population to migrate south to Longvek . The alternate name, Yasodharapura, was derived from the name of

2208-652: The Laotian Civil War of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s, a secret American airbase was located at Luang Prabang and it was the scene of fighting. Luang Prabang remained the royal capital until 1975, when the Pathet Lao communist forces seized power with North Vietnamese support and dissolved the monarchy. Luang Prabang was enlisted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995 for the recognition of its well-preserved architectural, religious and cultural heritage. Luang Prabang has both natural and historical sites. Among

2304-464: The Mongols , who destroyed Dali in 1253 and made the area a province of their empire—naming it Yunnan—exercised a decisive political influence in the middle Mekong Valley for the better part of a century. In 1271 Panya Lang, founder of a new dynasty headed by rulers bearing the title panya (lord), began his rule over a fully sovereign Muang Sua. In 1286 Panya Lang's son, Panya Khamphong, was involved in

2400-469: The Wat Xieng Thong temple are among the best known historical sites. The town, particularly the main street, is dotted with many smaller wats such as Wat Hosian Voravihane . Every morning at sunrise, monks walk in a procession through the streets accepting alms offered by local residents, an event popular with tourists. Mountain biking is quite common, with people often biking around the town or to

2496-402: The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved by compassion for his subjects. Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate the royal personality cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of the cult with the bodhisattva rather than with Shiva. The Hindu restoration began around 1243 AD, with the death of Jayavarman VII's successor, Indravarman II . The next king, Jayavarman VIII , was

2592-598: The head of state of the Kingdom of Laos . The town was the scene of many events during and in the aftermath of World War II and it was occupied by several foreign countries during the war ( Vichy France , Thailand , Imperial Japan , Free France , and Nationalist China ). Initially the Vichy French controlled the city but lost it to Thai forces following the Franco-Thai War of 1940–1941. On 9 March 1945,

2688-547: The Angkor area number over one thousand, ranging in scale from nondescript piles of brick rubble scattered through rice fields to the Angkor Wat, said to be the world's largest single religious monument. Many of the temples at Angkor have been restored, and together, they comprise the most significant site of Khmer architecture . Visitors approach two million annually, and the entire expanse, including Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom

2784-467: The Angkorian period is generally set as 1431, the year Angkor was sacked and looted by Suphannaphum-Mon dynasty of Ayutthaya invaders, though the civilization already had been in decline in the 13th and 14th centuries. During the course of the 15th century, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned, except for Angkor Wat , which remained a Buddhist shrine. Several theories have been advanced to account for

2880-470: The Angkorian temple-mountain. The temple-mountain was the center of the city, and the lingam in the main sanctuary was the focus of the temple. The name of the central lingam was the name of the king himself, combined with the suffix -esvara , which designated Shiva. Through the worship of the lingam, the king was identified with Shiva, and Shaivism became the state religion. Thus, an inscription dated 881 AD indicates that king Indravarman I erected

2976-472: The Chinese as Funan (1st century AD to ca. 550) and Chenla (ca. 550 – ca. 800 AD), included elements of Hinduism, Buddhism and indigenous ancestor cults. Temples from the period of Chenla bear stone inscriptions, in both Sanskrit and Khmer , naming both Hindu and local ancestral deities, with Shiva supreme among the former. The cult of Harihara was prominent; Buddhism was not, because, as reported by

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3072-451: The Chinese border in the north to Vientiane in the south. The complete journey takes less than three hours by train instead of three days by road. There is a French international school in the city, École francophone de Luang Prabang. Luang Prabang features a tropical wet and dry climate ( Aw ) under the Köppen climate classification . While the city is generally very warm throughout

3168-451: The Chinese pilgrim Yi Jing , a "wicked king" had destroyed it. Characteristic of the religion of Chenla also was the cult of the lingam, or stone phallus that patronized and guaranteed fertility to the community in which it was located. The Khmer king Jayavarman II , whose assumption of power around 800 AD marks the beginning of the Angkorian period, established his capital at a place called Hariharalaya (today known as Roluos ), at

3264-460: The Egyptian structures combined. The single largest temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat , was built between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II . Suryavarman ascended to the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival's war elephant and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays

3360-497: The Khmer capital of Yasodharapura and in killing the reigning king. However, a Khmer prince who was to become King Jayavarman VII rallied his people and defeated the Cham in battles on the lake and on the land. In 1181, Jayavarman assumed the throne. He was to be the greatest of the Angkorian kings. Over the ruins of Yasodharapura, Jayavarman constructed the walled city of Angkor Thom , as well as its geographic and spiritual center,

3456-687: The Laotian opium crop. In April and May 1946, the French attempted to recapture Laos by using paratroops to retake Vientiane and Luang Prabang and drive Phetsarath and the Lao Issara ministers out of Laos and into Thailand and Vietnam. During the First Indochina War , the Viet Minh and Pathet Lao forces attempted to capture the city several times in 1953 and 1954, but were stopped before they could reach it by French forces. During

3552-501: The Luang Prabang's famous Jeow Bong . Luang Prabang is served by Luang Prabang International Airport with non-stop flights to adjoining countries. Luang Prabang is served by Route 13 , which connects to Vang Vieng and Vientiane to the south, and to Boten in the north. The road is paved, though the surface is in poor condition at places. Since 2014, a new road connects Kasi (close to Vang Vieng) to Luang Prabang, allowing

3648-710: The Region of Siem Reap ( APSARA ), created in 1995. Some temples have been carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations, in accordance with the method of anastylosis . The World Monuments Fund has aided Preah Khan , the Churning of the Sea of Milk (a 49-meter-long bas-relief frieze in Angkor Wat), Ta Som , and Phnom Bakheng . International tourism to Angkor has increased significantly in recent years, with visitor numbers reaching around 2 million

3744-681: The Sipsong Panna had regained their independence from the Khmers , however, and in 1238 an internal uprising in the Khmer outpost of Sukhothai expelled the Khmer overlords. Xieng Dong Xieng Thong in 1353 became the capital of the Lan Xang kingdom. In 1359 the Khmer king from Angkor gave the Phra Bang to his son-in-law, the first Lang Xang monarch Fa Ngum (1353–1373); to provide Buddhist legitimacy both to Fa Ngum's rule and by extension to

3840-521: The Vietnamese border to the western escarpment of the Khorat Plateau . Luang Prabang Luang Phabang , ( Lao : ຫລວງພະບາງ / ຫຼວງພະບາງ ) or Louangphabang (pronounced [lǔaŋ pʰāʔ.bàːŋ] ), commonly transliterated into Western languages from the pre-1975 Lao spelling ຫຼວງພຣະບາງ (ຣ = silent r ) as Luang Prabang , literally meaning " Royal Buddha Image ", is

3936-491: The Vishnu venerated there was not the ancient Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him, residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just like Vishnu in his celestial palace". Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with Shiva. In

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4032-443: The archaeological sites at Angkor by walking and climbing on the (mostly) sandstone monuments at Angkor. This direct pressure created by unchecked tourism is expected to cause significant damage to the monuments in the future. In sites such as Angkor, tourism is inevitable. Therefore, the site management team cannot exclusively manage the site. The team has to manage the flow of people. Millions of people visit Angkor each year, making

4128-485: The aristocracy of Tai overlords. Dates of the occupation are not known, but it probably ended well before the northward expansion of the Khmer Empire under Indravarman I (reigned 877–889) and extended as far as the territories of Sipsong Panna on the upper Mekong. In the meantime, the Khmers founded an outpost at Xayfong near Vientiane , and Champa expanded again in southern Laos, maintaining its presence on

4224-570: The banks of the Mekong until 1070. Chanthaphanit , the local ruler of Xayfong, moved north to Muang Sua and was accepted peacefully as ruler after the departure of the Nanzhao administrators. Chanthaphanit and his son had long reigns, during which the town became known by the Tai name Xieng Dong Xieng Thong. The dynasty eventually became involved in the squabbles of a number of principalities. Khun Chuang ,

4320-433: The capital today. In 1707, Lan Xang fell apart because of a dynastic struggle and Luang Prabang became the capital of the independent Kingdom of Luang Phrabang . When France annexed Laos, the French recognised Luang Prabang as the royal residence of Laos. Eventually, the ruler of Luang Prabang became synonymous with the figurehead of Laos. When Laos achieved independence, the king of Luang Prabang, Sisavang Vong , became

4416-457: The city consists of four main roads and is located on a peninsula at the confluence of the Nam Khan and Mekong River . Luang Prabang is well known for its numerous Buddhist temples and monasteries. Every morning, hundreds of monks from the various monasteries walk through the streets collecting alms . One of the city's major landmarks is Mount Phou Si ; a large steep hill which despite

4512-473: The constrained scale of the city, is 150 metres (490 ft) high; a steep staircase leads to Wat Chom Si shrine and an overlook of the city and the rivers. The city was formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name. It had also been known by the ancient name of Xieng Thong . It was the royal capital and seat of government of the Kingdom of Laos , until the Pathet Lao takeover in 1975. The city

4608-807: The current understanding of Angkor. Work resumed after the end of the Cambodian Civil War and, since 1993, has been jointly co-ordinated by India, Germany, Japan and UNESCO through the International Co-ordinating Committee on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), while Cambodian work is carried out by the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and

4704-487: The decline and abandonment of Angkor: It is widely believed that the abandonment of the Khmer capital occurred as a result of Ayutthaya invasions. Ongoing civil wars with the Lavo-Khmer and Suphannaphum-Mon dynasty of Ayutthaya were already sapping the strength of Angkor at the time of Zhou Daguan toward the end of the 13th century. In his memoirs, Zhou reported that the country had been completely devastated by such

4800-442: The estimated 300,000 agricultural workers required to feed them all. According to Coedès, the weakening of Angkor's royal government by ongoing war and the erosion of the cult of the devaraja , undermined the government's ability to carry out important public works, such as the construction and maintenance of the waterways essential for irrigation of the rice fields upon which Angkor's large population depended for its sustenance. As

4896-678: The foster mother of Lord Krishna in Hinduism. Hinduism was the largest religion in the ancient Khmer Empire, and many temples were constructed by Khmer kings dedicated to Hindu deities, including Angkor Wat . The ruins of Angkor are located amid forests and farmland north of the Great Lake ( Tonlé Sap ) and south of the Kulen Hills , near modern-day Siem Reap city (13°24′N, 103°51′E), in Siem Reap Province . The temples of

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4992-527: The government's inability to organize around the site. The Cambodian government has failed in organizing a robust team of cultural specialists and archaeologists to service the site. During the COVID-19 pandemic , the lack of visitors resulted in 10,000 people working in the Cambodian ;tourist trade being out of work. Historical Angkor was more than a site for religious art and architecture. It

5088-452: The great lake of Tonle Sap . He also established the city of Hariharalaya (now known as Roluos) at the northern end of Tonlé Sap . Through a program of military campaigns, alliances, marriages and land grants, he achieved a unification of the country bordered by China to the north, Champa (now Central Vietnam) to the east, the ocean to the south and a place identified by a stone inscription as "the land of cardamoms and mangoes " to

5184-422: The individual served to sap the vitality of the royal personality cult which had provided the inspiration for the grand monuments of Angkor. The vast expanse of temples required an equally large body of workers to maintain them; at Ta Prohm , a stone carving states that 12,640 people serviced that single temple complex. Not only could the spread of Buddhism have eroded this workforce, but it could have also affected

5280-476: The inscriptions that have been found on Angkorian stelae , temples and other monuments, and with the bas-reliefs at the Bayon and Angkor Wat , Zhou's journal is the most important source of information about everyday life at Angkor. Filled with vivid anecdotes and sometimes incredulous observations of a civilization that struck Zhou as colorful and exotic, it is an entertaining travel memoir as well. The end of

5376-491: The land's dominant religion from the 14th century. The year 1296 marked the arrival at Angkor of the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan representing the Yuan dynasty . Zhou's one-year sojourn in the Khmer capital during the reign of King Indravarman III is historically significant, because he penned a still-surviving account, The Customs of Cambodia , of approximately forty pages detailing his observations of Khmer society. Some of

5472-534: The last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed radically from the tradition of his predecessors when he adopted Mahayana Buddhism as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made Buddhism the state religion of his kingdom when he constructed the Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the heart of his new capital city of Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the Bayon, the king represented himself as

5568-596: The management of Angkor, commenting in 2005, "vandalism has multiplied at a phenomenal rate, employing local populations to carry out the actual thefts, heavily armed intermediaries transport objects, often in tanks or armored personnel carriers, often for sale across the Cambodian border." . Theft of archaeological objects has been greatly reduced in Cambodia since those comments were made. The increasing number of tourists, around two million per year, exerts pressure on

5664-468: The management of this flow vital to the quickly decaying structures. Western tourism to Angkor began in the 1970s. The sandstone monuments and Angkor are not made for this type of heightened tourism. Moving forward, UNESCO and local authorities at the site are in the process of creating a sustainable plan for the future of the site. Since 1992, UNESCO has moved towards conserving Angkor. Thousands of new archaeological sites have been discovered by UNESCO, and

5760-415: The mountainous country to the northeast. Between 1286 and 1297, Panya Khamphong's lieutenants, acting for Ramkhamhaeng and the Mongols, pacified vast territories. From 1297 to 1301, Lao troops under Mongol command invaded Dai Viet but were repulsed by the Vietnamese. Troops from Muang Sua conquered Muang Phuan in 1292–97. In 1308 Panya Khamphong seized the ruler of Muang Phuan, and by 1312 this principality

5856-487: The names Funan and Chenla . In 889, Yasovarman ascended to the throne. A great king and an accomplished builder, he was celebrated by one inscription as "a lion-man; he tore the enemy with the claws of his grandeur; his teeth were his policies; his eyes were the Veda." Near the old capital of Hariharalaya , Yasovarman constructed a new city, called Yasodharapura , centered on the hill and temple of Phnom Bakheng . In

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5952-577: The natural tourism sites are the Kuang Si Falls , Tat Sae Waterfalls , and Pak Ou Caves . Elephant riding is offered at some sites. Phou Si , in the center of the town, has broad views of the town and river systems, and is a popular place to watch the sun setting over the Mekong River. At the end of the main street of Luang Prabang is a night market where stalls sell shirts, bracelets, and other souvenirs. The Haw Kham Royal Palace Museum and

6048-493: The north of Angkor over the next six years reopened Mongol communications with that place, which had been cut off. Fa Ngum organized the conquered principalities into provinces, and reclaimed Muang Sua from his father and elder brother. Fa Ngum was crowned king of Lan Xang at Vientiane , the site of one of his victories, in June 1354. Lan Xang extended from the border of China to Sambor below the Mekong rapids at Khong Island and from

6144-422: The northern end of the great lake, Tonlé Sap . Harihara is the name of a deity that combines the essence of Vishnu (Hari) with that of Shiva (Hara) and that was much favored by the Khmer kings. Jayavarman II's adoption of the epithet "devaraja" (god-king) signified the monarch's special connection with Shiva. The beginning of the Angkorian period was also marked by changes in religious architecture. During

6240-399: The organization has moved towards protected cultural zones. Two decades later, over 1000 people are employed full-time at the site for cultural sensitivity reasons. Part of this movement to limit the impacts of tourism has been to only open certain areas of the site. However, much of the 1992 precautionary measures and calls for future enforcement have fallen through. Both globally and locally

6336-401: The policy-making has been successful, but the implementation has failed for several reasons. First, there are conflicts of interest in Cambodia. While the site is culturally important to them, Cambodia is a poor country. Tourism is a vital part to the Cambodian economy, and shutting down parts of Angkor, the largest tourist destination in the country, is not an option. A second reason stems from

6432-465: The present site of Phnom Penh. Some scholars have connected the decline of Angkor with the conversion of the Khmer Empire to Theravada Buddhism following the reign of Jayavarman VII , arguing that this religious transition eroded the Hindu concept of kingship that underpinned the Angkorian civilization. According to Angkor scholar George Coedès , Theravada Buddhism's denial of the ultimate reality of

6528-416: The reign of Jayavarman II, the single-chambered sanctuaries typical of Chenla gave way to temples constructed as a series of raised platforms bearing multiple towers. Increasingly impressive temple pyramids came to represent Mount Meru , the home of the Hindu gods, with the moats surrounding the temples representing the mythological oceans. > Typically, a lingam served as the central religious image of

6624-474: The remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the landscape beyond. Because of the low-density and dispersed nature of the medieval Khmer settlement pattern, Angkor lacks a formal boundary, and its extent is therefore difficult to determine. However, a specific area of at least 1,000 km (390 sq mi) beyond the major temples is defined by a complex system of infrastructure, including roads and canals that indicate

6720-494: The size of its population remains a topic of research and debate, newly identified agricultural systems in the Angkor area may have supported between 750,000 and one million people. The Angkorian period may have begun shortly after 800 AD, when the Khmer King Jayavarman II announced the independence of Kambujadesa ( Cambodia ) from Java . According to Sdok Kok Thom inscription , circa 781 Indrapura

6816-468: The sovereignty of Laos and was used to spread Theravada Buddhism in the new kingdom. The capital name was changed to Luangphabang, where it was kept, named after the Buddha image. Luang Prabang was briefly occupied by the Vietnamese forces during Emperor Lê Thánh Tông 's 1478–1480 expedition against Lan Xang and Lanna . The capital was moved in 1560 by King Setthathirath I to Vientiane , which remains

6912-434: The stability of the sandy soils under the monuments at Angkor, leading to cracks, fissures and collapses. Making matters worse, the peak tourist season corresponds with Cambodia's dry season, which leads to excessive pumping of ground water when it is least replenished naturally. Looting has was once a threat to the Angkor archaeological landscape. According to APSARA, the official Cambodian agency charged with overseeing

7008-404: The state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal lingam. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality cult of Angkor, by which the reigning king was identified with the deity. According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès , "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a vaishnavite sanctuary, but

7104-399: The surviving stone inscriptions are about the religious foundations of kings and other potentates. As a result, it is easier to write the history of Angkorian state religion than it is to write that of just about any other aspect of Angkorian society. Several religious movements contributed to the historical development of religion at Angkor: The religion of pre-Angkorian Cambodia, known to

7200-402: The temple and its parts in relation to one another have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of the temple decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from mythology, but also from the life of his own imperial court. In one of the scenes, the king himself is portrayed as larger in size than his subjects, sitting cross-legged on an elevated throne and holding court, while

7296-410: The temple known as the Bayon . Bas-reliefs at the Bayon depict not only the king's battles with the Cham, but also scenes from the life of Khmer villagers and courtiers. Jayavarman oversaw the period of Angkor's most prolific construction, which included building of the well-known temples of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan , dedicating them to his parents. This massive program of construction coincided with

7392-438: The topics he addressed in the account were those of religion, justice, kingship, societal norms, agriculture, slavery, birds, vegetables, bathing, clothing, tools, draft animals, and commerce. In one passage, he described a royal procession consisting of soldiers, numerous servant women and concubines, ministers and princes, and finally, "the sovereign, standing on an elephant, holding his sacred sword in his hand." Together with

7488-406: The tradition of his predecessors, he also constructed a massive reservoir called baray . The significance of such reservoirs has been debated by modern scholars, some of whom have seen in them a means of irrigating rice fields, and others of whom have regarded them as religiously charged symbols of the great mythological oceans surrounding Mount Meru , the abode of the gods. The mountain, in turn,

7584-556: The transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age . LDEO dendrochronological research has established tree-ring chronologies indicating severe periods of drought across mainland Southeast Asia in the early 15th century, raising the possibility that Angkor's canals and reservoirs ran dry and ended expansion of available farmland. A 16th century Portuguese friar , António da Madalena ,

7680-491: The trip to be made in about 3 hours (compared to 5 hours via Route 13). Several daily buses run from Vientiane to Luang Prabang, taking 11–13 hours. The road from Huay Xai to Luang Prabang is poorly maintained, remote, unlit, unmarked and dangerous for the unfamiliar, particularly in the rainy season. Buses regularly travel the route for 14–16 hours. If coming from Vietnam, sleeper buses can be caught from Hanoi to either Luang Prabang or Vang Vieng . The Mekong River itself

7776-605: The waterfalls for the day. Down the Mekong River, a 15-minute boat ride from the city centre, Ban Chan (the pottery village ) is another notable place. Luang Prabang received 'Best City' in the Wanderlust Travel Awards 2015. Luang Prabang has a rich artistic and culinary history and the city's cooks were hired by the king. Typical local dishes include: Or lam (O-lam, the favourite dish of Luang Prabang locals), Luang Prabang sausage, mokpa (steamed fish), and Kaipen made from Mekong River moss (served fried) with

7872-403: The well-known temples at its core. Angkor is considered to be a "hydraulic city" because it had a complicated water management network, which was used for systematically stabilizing, storing, and dispersing water throughout the area. This network is believed to have been used for irrigation in order to offset the unpredictable monsoon season and to also support the increasing population. Although

7968-400: The west. In 802, Jayavarman articulated his new status by declaring himself "universal monarch" ( chakravartin ) and, in a move that was to be imitated by his successors and that linked him to the cult of Siva , taking on the epithet of "god-king" ( devaraja ). Before Jayavarman, Cambodia had consisted of a number of politically independent principalities collectively known to the Chinese by

8064-516: The world's most magnificent architectural masterpieces in the area known as Angkor. Most are concentrated in an area approximately 15 miles (24 km) east to west and 5 miles (8.0 km) north to south, although the Angkor Archaeological Park, which administers the area, includes sites as far away as Kbal Spean , about 30 miles (48 km) to the north. Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and

8160-480: The year, it is noticeably cooler during December and January. Luang Prabang also experiences wet and dry seasons, with the wet season from April until October, and the dry season during the remaining five months. The city receives approximately 1,450 millimetres (57 in) of precipitation annually. Angkor Angkor ( Khmer : អង្គរ [ʔɑŋkɔː] , lit. 'capital city'), also known as Yasodharapura ( Khmer : យសោធរបុរៈ ; Sanskrit : यशोधरपुर ),

8256-479: Was a vassal state of Muang Sua. Mongol overlordship was unpopular in Muang Sua. Internal conflicts among members of the new dynasty over Mongol intervention in their affairs resulted in continuing family upheavals. Panya Khamphong exiled his son Fa Phi Fa and most likely intended to leave the throne to his younger grandson, Fa Ngieo. Fa Ngieo, involved in various coups and coup attempts, in 1330 sent his two sons to

8352-430: Was represented by an elevated temple, in which the "god-king" was represented by a lingam . In accordance with this cosmic symbolism, Yasovarman built his central temple on a low hill known as Phnom Bakheng , surrounding it with a moat fed from the baray. He also built numerous other Hindu temples and ashrams , or retreats for ascetics. Over the next 300 years, between 900 and 1200, the Khmer Empire produced some of

8448-441: Was said to have dug the Mekong riverbed. At this time, Theravada Buddhism was subsumed by Mahayana Buddhism . Muang Sua experienced a brief period of Khmer suzerainty under Jayavarman VII from 1185 to 1191. By 1180 the Sipsong Panna had regained their independence from the Khmers, however, and in 1238 an internal uprising in the Khmer outpost of Sukhothai expelled the Khmer overlords. Recent historical research has shown that

8544-454: Was secondary to that of Shiva . The relationship seems to have changed with the construction of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as "Paramavishnuloka", or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu". Religious syncretism , however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society:

8640-452: Was shown to European visitors; Henri Mouhot in 1860 and Anna Leonowens in 1865, it remained cloaked by the forest until the end of the 19th century. European archeologists such as Louis Delaporte and ethnologists such as Adolf Bastian visited the site and popularized the site in Europe. This eventually led to a long restoration process by French archaeologists. From 1907 to 1970, work

8736-555: Was the capital city of the Khmer Empire , located in present-day Cambodia . The city and empire flourished from approximately the 9th to the 15th centuries. The city houses the Angkor Wat , one of Cambodia's most popular tourist attractions. The name Angkor is derived from nokor ( នគរ ), a Khmer word meaning "kingdom" which in turn derived from Sanskrit nagara ( नगर ), meaning "city". The Angkorian period began in AD 802, when

8832-495: Was the first capital of Jayavarman II , located in Banteay Prei Nokor , near today's Kompong Cham . After he eventually returned to his home, the former kingdom of Chenla , he quickly built up his influence, conquered a series of competing kings, and in 790 became king of a kingdom called Kambuja by the Khmer. He then moved his court northwest to Mahendraparvata , in present day Kulen mountains , inland north from

8928-469: Was the first recorded European visitor to visit Angkor Wat in 1586. By the 17th century, Angkor Wat was not completely abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions from the 17th century testify to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondafu Kazufusa , who celebrated the Khmer New Year there in 1632. While Angkor was known to the local Khmer and

9024-416: Was the site of vast cities that served all the needs of the Khmer people. Aside from a few old bridges, however, all of the remaining monuments are religious edifices. In Angkorian times, all non-religious buildings, including the residence of the king himself, were constructed of perishable materials, such as wood, "because only the gods had a right to residences made of stone". Similarly, the vast majority of

9120-400: Was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries throughout the region. Xieng Dong Xieng Thong experienced a brief period of Khmer suzerainty under Jayavarman VII from 1185 to 1191. By 1180

9216-406: Was under the direction of the École française d'Extrême-Orient , which cleared away the forest, repaired foundations, and installed drains to protect the buildings from water damage. In addition, scholars associated with the school including George Coedès , Maurice Glaize , Paul Mus , Philippe Stern and others initiated a program of historical scholarship and interpretation that is fundamental to

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