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58-562: More than 110, see text. Homotypic: Heterotypic: Mucuna is a genus of around 114 accepted species of climbing lianas (vines) and shrubs of the family Fabaceae : tribe Phaseoleae , typically found in tropical and subtropical forests in the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, southern, southeastern, and eastern Asia, New Guinea, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. The leaves are trifoliolate, alternate, or spiraled, and

116-609: A monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), produces behavioral changes such as hyperlocomotion and reversal of reserpine -induced behavioral depression . In addition, it produces effects like hyperthermia , tachycardia , myoclonus , and seizures or convulsions , among others. Findings on tryptamine and the head-twitch response in rodents are mixed, with some studies reporting no effect, some reporting induction of head twitches by tryptamine, and others reporting that tryptamine actually antagonized 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)-induced head twitches. Head twitches in rodents are

174-406: A monoamine releasing agent . It is a releaser of serotonin , dopamine , and norepinephrine , in that order of potency ( EC 50 = 32.6 ± 2.6   nM, 164 ± 16   nM, and 716 ± 46   nM, respectively). Tryptamine is a monoaminergic activity enhancer (MAE) of serotonin , norepinephrine , and dopamine in addition to its serotonin receptor agonism . That is, it enhances

232-683: A behavioral proxy of psychedelic-like effects. Many of the effects of tryptamine can be reversed by serotonin receptor antagonists like metergoline , metitepine (methiothepin), and cyproheptadine . Conversely, the effects of tryptamine in animals are profoundly augmented by MAOIs due to inhibition of its metabolism. Tryptamine seems to also elevate prolactin and cortisol levels in animals and/or humans. The LD 50 Tooltip median lethal dose values of tryptamine in animals include 100   mg/kg i.p. in mice, 500   mg/kg s.c. in mice, and 223   mg/kg i.p. in rats. Tryptamine produced endogenously or administered peripherally

290-407: A genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of

348-472: A large number of antinutritional compounds . The most important is L-dopa, which the digestive system of most animals confuses with the amino acid tyrosine , causing the production of defective proteins . Other antinutrients are tannins , lectins , phytic acid , cyanogenic glycosides , and trypsin and amylase inhibitors, although all these can be removed by long cooking. M. pruriens may also contain chemicals such as serotonin , 5-HTP , nicotine , and

406-651: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

464-628: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

522-513: A potential treatment target for neuropsychiatric disorders. For a list of plants, fungi and animals containing tryptamines, see List of psychoactive plants and List of naturally occurring tryptamines . Endogenous levels of tryptamine in the mammalian brain are less than 100 ng per gram of tissue. However, elevated levels of trace amines have been observed in patients with certain neuropsychiatric disorders taking medications, such as bipolar depression and schizophrenia . Tryptamine

580-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

638-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

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696-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

754-561: Is structurally related to the amino acid tryptophan . The experimental log P of tryptamine is 1.55. The endogenous monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and melatonin (5-methoxy- N -acetyltryptamine), as well as trace amines like N -methyltryptamine (NMT), N , N -dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and bufotenin ( N , N -dimethylserotonin), are derivatives of tryptamine. A variety of drugs, including both naturally occurring and pharmaceutical substances, are derivatives of tryptamine. These include

812-452: Is described as shorter than that of dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Brain tryptamine levels are increased up to 300-fold by MAOIs in animals. In addition, the effects of exogenous tryptamine are strongly augmented by monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). Tryptamine is excreted in urine and its rate of urinary excretion has been reported to be pH -dependent. Tryptamine is a substituted tryptamine derivative and trace amine and

870-612: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

928-403: Is readily able to cross the blood–brain barrier and enter the central nervous system . This is in contrast to serotonin , which is peripherally selective . Tryptamine is metabolized by monoamine oxidase (MAO) to form indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Its metabolism is described as extremely rapid and its elimination half-life and duration as very short. In addition, its duration

986-535: Is relatively abundant in the gut and feces of humans and rodents. Commensal bacteria, including Ruminococcus gnavus and Clostridium sporogenes in the gastrointestinal tract , possess the enzyme tryptophan decarboxylase , which aids in the conversion of dietary tryptophan to tryptamine. Tryptamine is a ligand for gut epithelial serotonin type 4 (5-HT 4 ) receptors and regulates gastrointestinal electrolyte balance through colonic secretions. To yield tryptamine in vivo , tryptophan decarboxylase removes

1044-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1102-415: Is specific to tryptamine degradation. Tryptamine is known to act as a serotonin receptor agonist , although its potency is limited by rapid inactivation by monoamine oxidases . It has specifically been found to act as a full agonist of the serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor ( EC 50 Tooltip half-maximal effective concentration = 7.36 ± 0.56   nM; E max = 104 ± 4%). Tryptamine

1160-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

1218-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

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1276-824: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

1334-690: The action potential -mediated release of these monoamine neurotransmitters . The MAE actions of tryptamine and other MAEs may be mediated by TAAR1 agonism. Synthetic and more potent MAEs like benzofuranylpropylaminopentane (BPAP) and indolylpropylaminopentane (IPAP) have been derived from tryptamine. In a published clinical study, tryptamine, at a total dose of 23 to 277   mg by intravenous infusion , produced hallucinogenic effects or perceptual disturbances similar to those of small doses of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). It also produced other LSD-like effects, including pupil dilation , increased blood pressure , and increased force of

1392-431: The dorsal raphe nuclei (DRN). Additionally, the hTAAR1 gene is localized at 6q23.2 on the human chromosome, which is a susceptibility locus for mood disorders and schizophrenia. Activation of TAAR1 suggests a potential novel treatment for neuropsychiatric disorders, as TAAR1 agonists produce anti-depressive activity, increased cognition , reduced stress and anti-addiction effects. Tryptamine has been found to act as

1450-482: The hallucinogenic tryptamines 5-MeO-DMT , bufotenine and dimethyltryptamine , Mucuna is not traditionally consumed as a food crop, but some preliminary experiments have shown that if the antinutrients are removed or at least brought down to safe level, the beans can be fed to livestock or people. The L-dopa content is the most important and difficult toxin to get rid of. The seeds must be extensively processed before they can be safely eaten. Diallo & Berhe found

1508-408: The monoamine reuptake transporter . This mechanism increases the amount of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft, subsequently increasing postsynaptic receptor binding and neuronal activation. Conversely, when hTAAR1 are colocalized with G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels (GIRKs), receptor activation reduces neuronal firing by facilitating membrane hyperpolarization through

1566-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

1624-540: The patellar reflex . Tryptamine produced side effects including nausea , vomiting , dizziness , tingling sensations, sweating , and bodily heaviness among others as well. Conversely, there were no changes in heart rate or respiratory rate . The onset of the effects was rapid and the duration was very short. This can be attributed to the very rapid metabolism of tryptamine by monoamine oxidase (MAO) and its very short elimination half-life . In animals, tryptamine, alone and/or in combination with

1682-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

1740-611: The proteolytic enzyme mucunain and cause itchy blisters when they come in contact with skin; specific epithets such as pruriens ( Latin : "itching") or urens (Latinized Ancient Greek : "stinging like a nettle ") refer to this. Other parts of the plant have medicinal properties. The plants or their extracts are sold in herbalism against a range of conditions, such as urinary tract , neurological , and menstruation disorders, constipation , edema , fevers , tuberculosis , and helminthiases such as elephantiasis . In an experiment to test if M. pruriens might have an effect on

1798-576: The trace amine-associated receptor , TAAR1 (hTAAR1 in humans). Limited studies have considered tryptamine to be a trace neuromodulator capable of regulating the activity of neuronal cell responses without binding to the associated postsynaptic receptors. hTAAR1 is a stimulatory G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) that is weakly expressed in the intracellular compartment of both pre- and postsynaptic neurons. Tryptamine and other hTAAR1 agonists can increase neuronal firing by inhibiting neurotransmitter recycling through cAMP -dependent phosphorylation of

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1856-487: The activated 5-HT 4 receptor undergoes a conformational change which allows its G s alpha subunit to exchange GDP for GTP , and its liberation from the 5-HT 4 receptor and βγ subunit. GTP-bound G s activates adenylyl cyclase , which catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP opens chloride and potassium ion channels to drive colonic electrolyte secretion and promote intestinal motility. Tryptamine can weakly activate

1914-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

1972-596: The best method was to crack open the seeds and soak them in constantly running fresh water such as under an open faucet for 36 hours, or to put them in a bag and leave in a flowing river for 72 hours, before cooking them for over an hour. Over a thousand people in the Republic of Guinea were fed a meal of Mucuna (mixed with many other ingredients) with no obvious ill effects. Plants of the World Online currently (2023) includes: Genus The composition of

2030-410: The carboxylic acid group on the α-carbon of tryptophan . Synthetic modifications to tryptamine can produce serotonin and melatonin ; however, these pathways do not occur naturally as the main pathway for endogenous neurotransmitter synthesis. Monoamine oxidases A and B are the primary enzymes involved in tryptamine metabolism to produce indole-3-acetaldehyde , however it is unclear which isoform

2088-449: The efflux of potassium ions. The balance between the inhibitory and excitatory activity of hTAAR1 activation highlights the role of tryptamine in the regulation of neural activity. Activation of hTAAR1 is under investigation as a novel treatment for depression, addiction, and schizophrenia. hTAAR1 is primarily expressed in brain structures associated with dopamine systems, such as the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and serotonin systems in

2146-407: The first one being the heterocyclic nitrogen). The structure of tryptamine is a shared feature of certain aminergic neuromodulators including melatonin , serotonin , bufotenin and psychedelic derivatives such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT), psilocybin , psilocin and others . Tryptamine has been shown to activate serotonin receptors and trace amine-associated receptors expressed in

2204-532: The flowers are pea-like but larger, with distinctive curved petals , and occurring in racemes . Like other legumes, Mucuna plants bear pods. They are generally bat-pollinated and produce seeds that are buoyant sea-beans . These have a characteristic three-layered appearance, appearing like the eyes of a large mammal in some species and like a hamburger in others (most notably M. sloanei ) and giving rise to common names like deer-eye beans , donkey-eye beans , ox-eye beans , or hamburger seed . The name of

2262-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

2320-737: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

2378-492: The genus is derived from mucunã , a Tupi–Guarani word for these species. Some Mucuna species are used as food plants by caterpillars of Lepidoptera . These include Morpho butterflies and the two-barred flasher ( Astraptes fulgerator ), which is sometimes found on M. holtonii and perhaps others. The plant pathogenic fungus Mycosphaerella mucunae is named for being first discovered on Mucuna . The pods of some species are covered in coarse hairs that contain

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2436-633: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

2494-437: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Tryptamine Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid, tryptophan . The chemical structure is defined by an indole —a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with

2552-412: The mammalian brain, and regulates the activity of dopaminergic , serotonergic and glutamatergic systems. In the human gut, symbiotic bacteria convert dietary tryptophan to tryptamine, which activates 5-HT 4 receptors and regulates gastrointestinal motility. Multiple tryptamine-derived drugs have been developed to treat migraines , while trace amine-associated receptors are being explored as

2610-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

2668-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

2726-541: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

2784-477: The psychedelic lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the antimigraine agents ergotamine , dihydroergotamine , and methysergide , and the antiparkinsonian agents bromocriptine , cabergoline , lisuride , and pergolide ; β-carbolines like harmine (some of which are monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)); Iboga alkaloids like the hallucinogen ibogaine ; yohimbans like the α 2 blocker yohimbine ; antipsychotics like ciclindole and flucindole ; and

2842-470: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or

2900-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in

2958-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

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3016-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

3074-525: The symptoms of Parkinson's disease , Katzenschlager et al. found that a seed powder had a comparable, if not more favourable, effect as commercial formulations of L-dopa, although the trial only consisted of four people per test group. M. pruriens was found to increase phosphorus availability after application of rock phosphate in one Nigerian experiment. M. pruriens was used in Native American milpa agriculture. Mucuna seeds contain

3132-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

3190-420: The tryptamine psychedelics like psilocybin , psilocin , DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT ; tryptamine stimulants , entactogens , psychedelics, and/or antidepressants like α-methyltryptamine (αMT) and α-ethyltryptamine (αET); triptan antimigraine agents like sumatriptan ; certain antipsychotics like oxypertine ; and the sleep aid melatonin . Various other drugs, including ergolines and lysergamides like

3248-576: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

3306-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

3364-485: Was of much lower potency in stimulating the 5-HT 2A receptor β-arrestin pathway ( EC 50 = 3,485 ± 234   nM; E max = 108 ± 16%). In contrast to the 5-HT 2A receptor, tryptamine was found to be inactive at the serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor . Tryptamine produced by mutualistic bacteria in the human gut activates serotonin GPCRs ubiquitously expressed along the colonic epithelium. Upon tryptamine binding,

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