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104-519: For much of the twentieth century, hadith studies has been occupied by the question of "authenticity", namely whether a hadith tradition represents a reliable historical account or if it originated later (and if it originated later, when, by whom, in what circumstances, etc.). More recently, the scope of the field has broadened to also address questions such as what role hadith played in the intellectual and social histories of Muslim societies . The earliest schools and scholars of Islamic law—starting around

208-698: A succession crisis that has never been resolved. The following First , Second and Third Fitnas and finally the Abbasid Revolution (746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since. Ghaznavids ' rule was succeeded by the Ghurid Empire of Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad , whose reigns under the leadership of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until

312-478: A "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namely Eritrea , Ethiopia , Guinea-Bissau , Ivory Coast , Nigeria , North Macedonia , and Tanzania . As of 2024, however, Nigeria has become a Muslim-majority country. The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and

416-420: A broader notion of Islamism as a form of identity politics , involving "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community." Islamists themselves prefer terms such as "Islamic movement", or "Islamic activism" to "Islamism", objecting to the insinuation that Islamism is anything other than Islam renewed and revived. In public and academic contexts,

520-436: A century and a half after the death of Muhammad—did not all agree on the importance of Prophetic sunnah and its basis, the basis for which was the group of hadith ultimately attributed to Muhammad and his followers . Opinion ranged from prophetic hadith being one source of law among others (such as caliphal tradition or reports going back to Muhammad's followers), as was held by the ahl al-raʿy to outright rejection of hadith on

624-463: A decisive role in elevating the status of hadith although some skepticism along that of earlier lines would continue. Once (authentic) hadith had attained their elevated status among the group inspired by al-Shafi'i who sought to establish Islamic practice on the basis of the Sunnah (Muhammad's deeds and sayings), the focus shifted amongst advocates of this group (who were called the ahl al-sunnah , or

728-793: A dimmer view of Goldziher. Okiç’s other student, Mehmed Said Hatiboğlu, followed Goldziher's conclusions and had limited qualms with the majority of hadith academics. Hatiboğlu influenced later modernist scholars who went on to establish the journal İslamiyat (1998–2007) and two publishing houses. In the second half of the 20th century, the Faculty of Theology at Ankara trained a generation of scholars that engaged with and in Western hadith studies. Works by Wellhausen , Goldziher, Schacht , and Montgomery Watt were translated into Turkish. The number of theology faculties grew and, by 2017, there were 81 accepting students. This sizable growth concurrently led to

832-618: A fervent opponent of Westernization , Zionism and nationalism , advocated Sunni internationalism through revolutionary restoration of a pan-Islamic Caliphate to politically unite the Muslim world. Riḍā was a strong exponent of Islamic vanguardism, the belief that Muslim community should be guided by clerical elites ( ulema ) who steered the efforts for religious education and Islamic revival . Riḍā's Salafi - Arabist synthesis and Islamist ideals greatly influenced his disciples like Hasan al-Banna, an Egyptian schoolteacher who founded

936-427: A hadith correlates with the variation in the listed chain of transmitters ( isnād ) across multiple versions of the same report. Modern academic study of hadith began with Ignác Goldziher (1850–1921), especially in the second volume of his work Muslim Studies (1890), and Joseph Schacht (1902–1969), in his Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (1950). The general sentiment has been that hadith do not constitute

1040-413: A hadith that existed prior to the accrual of variants among different transmitters may be reconstructed. In addition, Motzki believed that a comparative study of the differences between reports could enable the identification of particular manipulations and other alterations. Put another way, ICMA seeks to date and trace the evolution of hadith by identifying how variation in the text or content ( matn ) of

1144-475: A majority of the Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others): Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), and Nigeria (42%). They are found primarily in Central Asia . Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of

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1248-684: A minority, and their Muslim communities are larger than many Muslim-majority nations: During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history . Islamism refers to religious and political ideological movements that believe Islam should influence political systems, and generally oppose secularism . Its proponents believe Islam

1352-699: A number of variations, called schools of jurisprudence . The Amman Message , which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools ( Hanafi , Maliki , Shafi'i , Hanbali ), two Shia schools ( Ja'fari , Zaidi ), the Ibadi school, and the Zahiri school. Eight Islamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution. The following nineteen Muslim-majority states have endorsed Islam as their state religion , and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens, do not declare

1456-495: A reliable corpus of sources that go back to the historical Muhammad. This includes the body of legal hadith, which was hard to trace back to a time before the end of the first century after the death of Muhammad. According to Wael B. Hallaq, as of 1999 scholarly attitude in the West towards the authenticity of hadith has taken three approaches: since Schacht published his monumental work in 1950, scholarly discourse on this matter (i.e.,

1560-542: A separation of state and religion: Twenty-two Secular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion. According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries, which are shown in the Government and religion section above in the article. Apart from these, large Muslim populations exist in some countries where Muslims are

1664-624: A significant impact contributing the culture of the Middle East and North Africa and other areas. Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 million Christians lived in countries with Muslim majorities (excluding Nigeria). The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world, followed by Egypt, Chad and Kazakhstan. While according to Adly A. Youssef and Martyn Thomas, in 2004, there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities, with

1768-423: A sizable growth of students in academic hadith and Islamic studies. Considerable translation of Western works occurred in turn, with several theses beginning to appear on the phenomena of Western academic studies, and a broader engagement with Western work in general. Today, the main camps can be divided into "Istanbul-based traditionalists; Ankara-based modernists; and finally Kur’ancılar ( Ahl al-Qurʾān )" where

1872-510: A small fraction of their former sizes , with the largest communities of Jews in Muslim countries exist in the non-Arab countries of Iran (9,500) and Turkey (14,500); both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been. Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000. The number of Druze worldwide

1976-428: Is an approach in hadith studies which seeks to identify the origins or earlier versions of hadith by comparing reports that have the same content (matn) but have different chains of transmission (isnads). If the chains of transmission converge on a single figure, then that figure may be taken as the original collector of fabricator of the tradition, depending on one's approach or conclusion. Common-link theory originated in

2080-572: Is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant (primarily in Syria and Lebanon). Al-Dhahabi Shams ad-Dīn adh-Dhahabī ( شمس الدين الذهبي ), also known as Shams ad-Dīn Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn ʿUthmān ibn Qāymāẓ ibn ʿAbdillāh at-Turkumānī al-Fāriqī ad-Dimashqī (5 October 1274 – 3 February 1348 ) was an Athari theologian, Islamic historian and Hadith scholar. Of Turkic descent, adh-Dhahabi

2184-456: Is home to some of the world's most ancient Christian communities , and some of the most important cities of the Christian world —including three of its five great patriarchates ( Alexandria , Antioch , and Constantinople ). Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam , and they have had

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2288-582: Is innately political, and that Islam as a political system is superior to communism, liberal democracy, capitalism, and other alternatives in achieving a just, successful society. Islamism is generally considered anti-Zionist, anti-capitalist, anti-colonialist and anti-communist; Islamists support family values, sharia, reformation of interest-based finance, and the broad Quranic command of ' enjoining goodness and forbidding evil .' The advocates of Islamism, also known as "al-Islamiyyun", are dedicated to realizing their ideological interpretation of Islam within

2392-414: Is not surprising that, among the hotly debated controversial issues of Islam, whether political or doctrinal, there is not one in which the champions of the various views are unable to cite a number of traditions, all equipped with imposing isnads ". Against critics claims that oral transmission of hadith for generations allowed corruption to occur, conservatives argue that it is not oral transmission that

2496-583: Is often preferred in literature. The history of the Islamic faith as a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610 CE , when the Islamic prophet Muhammad , a native of Mecca , is believed by Muslims to have received the first revelation of the Quran, and began to preach his message. In 622 CE, facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers migrated to Yathrib (now Medina ), where he

2600-423: Is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%. In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority. India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population). Jones (2005) defines

2704-426: Is the fastest-growing major religion in the world partially due to their high birth rate, according to the same study, religious switching has no impact on Muslim population, since the number of people who embrace Islam and those who leave Islam are roughly equal. China has the third largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries, while Russia has the fifth largest Muslim population. Nigeria has

2808-480: Is through the lenses of this framework, supplemented by some additional work from Al-Dhahabi in the 14th century and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in the 15th century, that Muslim scholars since understood the discipline. The first collections to be accepted as authoritative among Sunnis by the tenth century CE were the Sahihayn , referring to Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim . Even as the set of canonical texts grew,

2912-461: Is unlikely that consensus yet existed for this view at this time as Shafi'i would come to spend great effort on establishing and promulgating his views over other ones. For those who criticized the reliability of hadith on the basis of their long phase of oral transmission, al-Shafi'i responded by arguing that God's wish for people to follow Muhammad's example would result in God ensuring the preservation of

3016-522: Is unreliable but written transmission. In fact oral transmission was "superior to isolated written documents" which had "little value" unless "attested by living witnesses". In contrast, the reliability of oral transmission was "assured by the remarkable memories of the Arabs". Orthodox Muslims do not deny the existence of false hadith , but believe that through the work of hadith scholars, these false hadith have been largely eliminated. Al-Shafi'i himself,

3120-627: The Kutub al-Sittah , emerged. Depending on the list, the sixth canonical book was the Sunan ibn Majah , the Sunan of Al-Daraqutni , or the Muwatta of Malik ibn Anas . In general, historians have cast doubt on the historicity and reliability of hadith for several reasons, including that the hadith sciences . The following problems have been identified in hadith science methodology: Also throwing doubt on

3224-690: The Bengal , where South Asian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of dawah and number of converts to Islam . Qutb ud-Din Aibak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanate , a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into

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3328-577: The Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP(PPP) of US$ 24 trillion which is equal to about 18% of world's GDP or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the world's GDP. Some OIC member countries - Ivory Coast , Guyana , Gabon , Mozambique , Nigeria , Suriname , Togo and Uganda are not Muslim-majority. As of 2020, 1.8 billion or more than 25% of

3432-473: The Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah . This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. In a modern geopolitical sense, these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread , although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion. The term Muslim-majority countries is an alternative often used for

3536-700: The Muslim Brotherhood movement, and Hajji Amin al-Husayni , the anti-Zionist Grand Mufti of Jerusalem . Al-Banna and Maududi called for a " reformist " strategy to re-Islamizing society through grassroots social and political activism. Other Islamists (Al-Turabi) are proponents of a " revolutionary " strategy of Islamizing society through exercise of state power, or ( Sayyid Qutb ) for combining grassroots Islamization with armed revolution. The term has been applied to non-state reform movements, political parties, militias and revolutionary groups. At least one author ( Graham E. Fuller ) has argued for

3640-586: The Pyrenees . The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Christian Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor during the Arab–Byzantine wars , however. The succeeding Umayyad Caliphate attempted two failed sieges of Constantinople in 674–678 and 717–718 . Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivalling Sunni and Shia sects since the killing of caliph Uthman in 656, resulting in

3744-437: The ummah , the community of Muslim believers, and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness of jahiliyyah . By Sayyid Qutb 's definition of Islam , the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society

3848-568: The "People of the Sunnah") to delineating between reliable or "sound" ( ṣaḥīḥ ) with unreliable hadith. The field that arose to meet this need came to be known as the hadith sciences ( ʻilm al-ḥadīth ), and this practice had entered into a mature stage by the 3rd century of Islam. The hadith sciences helped undergird the triumph of Al-Shafi'is prioritization of prophetic hadith which became the primary sources of Islamic law and also became "ideological" tools in political/theological conflicts. A challenge

3952-582: The 15th century, colonialism by European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies. A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating

4056-632: The 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems. The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describing Pan-Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of

4160-787: The Amir; the effect of the Tripoli Campaign ; Anglo-Russian action in Persia ; and "Afghan Ambitions". A significant change in the Muslim world was the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), to which the Ottoman officer and Turkish revolutionary statesman Mustafa Kemal Atatürk had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the Republic of Turkey , a modern , secular democracy (see Abolition of

4264-546: The Franks [Christian groups] will gather together in the wasteland with Egypt[ians] against a man whose name is Sadim [i.e., Saddam]-- none of them will return. They said: When, O Messenger of God? He said: Between the months of Jumada and Rajab [mid-November to mid- February], and you see an amazing thing come of it".’ " Muslim world The terms Muslim world and Islamic world ( Arabic : العالم الإسلامي , romanized :  Al-ʿĀlam al-ʾIslāmī ) commonly refer to

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4368-715: The Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh , Pakistan , etc.), Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in Anatolia , Massina Empire , Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria , Toucouleur Empire , were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. 19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country. These have revolved around

4472-503: The Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders". Central and prominent figures in 20th-century Islamism include Sayyid Rashid Riḍā , Hassan al-Banna (founder of the Muslim Brotherhood ), Sayyid Qutb , Abul A'la Maududi , Ruhollah Khomeini (founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran), Hassan Al-Turabi . Syrian Sunni cleric Muhammad Rashid Riḍā,

4576-661: The Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' or Rashidun . The conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate helped to spread Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Near East , North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula , to

4680-409: The Muslim world came under European colonial domination . The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular as well as religious trends. As of 2013 , the combined GDP (nominal) of 50 Muslim majority countries was US$ 5.7 trillion. As of 2016 , they contributed 8% of the world's total. In 2020,

4784-647: The Ottoman sultanate ). The secular values of Kemalist Turkey, which separated religion from the state with the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924, have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence. In the 21st century, after the September 11 attacks (2001) coordinated by the Wahhabi Islamist terrorist group Al-Qaeda against the United States, scholars considered

4888-586: The Politics of Nations (1731) The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire , starting from the wealthy Bengal Subah , Tipu Sultan 's Kingdom of Mysore , the Ottoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre-modern Greater Middle East , and initiated a period known as ' colonialism '. Beginning with

4992-550: The Prophet. Al-Sha'bi, a narrator of hadith, when hearing of this, criticizes people who just go around narrating many prophetic hadiths without care by saying he never heard from Umar I's son ‘Abdallah any hadith from the Prophet except just one. Hoyland vindicates Islamic sources as accurately representative of Islamic history. Gregor Schoeler writes: "He [Hoyland] shows that they [non-Islamic sources] are hardly suitable to support an alternative account of early Islamic history; on

5096-548: The Sahihayn remained the core of the canon, with Sahih al-Bukhari typically being viewed as the most pre-eminent of the two. The tenth century CE also saw the inclusion of another two collections to form a Four-Book canon, including the Sunan Abi Dawud and Sunan al-Nasa'i . This grew into a Five-Book canon in the twelfth century, when Sunan al-Tirmidhi was added. In the same century, the modern Six-Book canon, known as

5200-513: The appearance of different religious schools of thought and sects within Islam. The Islamic conquests , which culminated in the Caliphate being established across three continents ( Asia , Africa , and Europe ), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings. In the modern era, most of

5304-466: The basis of their potentially tenuous historicity, as was held by the ahl al-kalām (referred to by some as "speculative theologians"). A sizable shift in practice in favor of the tradition of prophetic hadith and its basis for Islamic law ( fiqh ) came with al-Shāfiʿī (767–820 CE), founder of the Shafi'i school of law. According to this school of thought, prophetic hadith override all other hadith. It

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5408-765: The context of the state or society. The majority of them are affiliated with Islamic institutions or social mobilization movements. Islamists emphasize the implementation of sharia , pan-Islamic political unity, and the creation of Islamic states . In its original formulation, Islamism described an ideology seeking to revive Islam to its past assertiveness and glory, purifying it of foreign elements, reasserting its role into "social and political as well as personal life"; and in particular "reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam" (i.e. Sharia). According to at least one observer (author Robin Wright ), Islamist movements have "arguably altered

5512-570: The contrary, they frequently agree with Islamic sources and supplement them." The creation of politically convenient hadith proliferated. Even in the present day, and in the buildup to the first Gulf War , a "tradition" was published in the Palestinian daily newspaper Al-Nahar on December 15, 1990, reading: "and described as `currently in wide circulation`", and it quotes the Prophet as predicting that "the Greeks and Franks will join with Egypt in

5616-404: The desert against a man named Sadim, and not one of them will return". Reza Aslan quotes Schacht's maxim: `the more perfect the isnad, the later the tradition`, which he (Aslan) calls "whimsical but accurate". Isnads are thought to have entered usage three-quarters of a century after Muhammad's death, before which hadith were transmitted haphazardly and anonymously. Once they began to be used,

5720-429: The doctrine that common use of hadith of Muhammad goes back to the generations immediately following the death of the prophet is historian Robert G. Hoyland , who quotes acolytes of two of the earliest Islamic scholars: Historian Robert G. Hoyland , states during Umayyad times only the central government was allowed to make laws, religious scholars began to challenge this by claiming they had been transmitted hadith by

5824-463: The first favorable reference to Western scholarship on hadith came from Zakir Kadiri Ugan (d. 1954), titled ‘Dinî ve Gayri Dinî Rivayetler’ (‘Religious and Non-Religious Narrations’), published in the Turkish journal Dârülfünûn İlâhiyat Fakültesi Mecmuası which operated from 1925 to 1933. This paper also represented the only significant academic work on hadith from Turkey in its time. Ugan criticized

5928-457: The founder of the proposition that "sunna" should be made up exclusively of specific precedents set by Muhammad passed down as hadith, argued that "having commanded believers to obey the Prophet" (citing Quran 33: 21), "God must certainly have provided the means to do so." Academic hadith studies in modern times is usually viewed unfavorably amongst scholars with more traditional inclinations or Muslim scholars operating out of madrasas. In Turkey ,

6032-528: The great Messenger [Muhammad] or not. An examination of [whether] the source is trustworthy and the transmitters reliable has occurred, and until now a large number of religious authorities have refused to confirm or deny the reliability of this tradition, [that it] came from the Messenger [of God] Muhammad. The tradition says: ‘The Messenger of God said: "The Banu al-Asfar [white people], the Byzantines and

6136-443: The hadith masters Ibn Nasir-ud-din al-Damishqi and Ibn Hajar , and through them transmitted several works authored or narrated by his father. Among adh-Dhahabi's most notable teachers in hadith , fiqh and aqida : Adh-Dhahabi authored nearly a hundred works of history, biography and theology. His history of medicine begins with Ancient Greek and Indian practices and practitioners, such as Hippocrates , Galen , etc., through

6240-425: The hadith sciences had to confront was the massive scale of hadith forgery, with Muhammad al-Bukhari claiming that only ~7,400 narrations of 600,000 he investigated met his criteria for inclusion. Even among those 7,400, a large fraction were variants of the same report, but with a different chain of transmitters ( isnad ). The criteria for establishing the authenticity ( sihha ) of hadith came down to corroboration of

6344-503: The hadith. He wrote an encyclopaedic biographical history and was the foremost authority on the canonical readings of the Qur'an . Some of his teachers were women. At Baalbek, Zaynab bint ʿUmar b. al-Kindī was among his most influential teachers. Adh-Dhahabi lost his sight two years before he died, leaving three children: the eldest, his daughter, Amat al-'Aziz, and his two sons, 'Abd Allah and Abu Hurayra 'Abd al-Rahman. The latter son taught

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6448-725: The identifiable Islamic schools and branches are known as non-denominational Muslims . About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia , the largest Muslim-majority country; 31% of Muslims live in South Asia, the largest population of Muslims in the world; 20% in the Middle East–North Africa, where it is the dominant religion; and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa and West Africa (primarily in Nigeria ). Muslims are

6552-444: The isnad of a report offers a sufficiently accurate history of its transmission to be able to verify or nullify it and the prioritization of isnads over other criteria like the presence of anachronisms in a hadith which might have an isnad that passes traditional standards of verification. Another criticism of isnads was of the efficacy of the traditional Hadith studies field known as biographical evaluations ( ʿilm al-rijāl )—evaluating

6656-443: The issue of authenticity) has proliferated. Three camps of scholars may be identified: one attempting to reconfirm his conclusions, and at times going beyond them; another endeavoring to refute them and a third seeking to create a middle, perhaps synthesized, position between the two. Among others, John Wansbrough, and Michael Cook belong to the first camp, while Nabia Abbott, F. Sezgin, M. Azami, Gregor Schoeler and Johann Fück belong to

6760-513: The lack of analysis of the content (matn) of hadith in traditional work, and criticized the doctrine of the 'collective probity of the Companions' ( taʿdīl al-ṣaḥābah ) as leading to an undue acceptance of the reliability of Muhammad's followers. Academic hadith work would be continued later by Muhammed Tayyib Okiç (d. 1977), who also established the tafsir and hadith faculties at Ankara University . Okiç did not believe that Western criticism

6864-637: The largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia, followed by Egypt. Nigeria is divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians, with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims. In 2018, the Jewish Agency estimated that around 27,000 Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries. Jewish communities have existed across the Middle East and North Africa since the rise of Islam. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to

6968-489: The largest Muslim population in Africa, while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia. The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamic propaganda . The Times described Pan-Islamism as a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider

7072-413: The largest Muslim population in the world. Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically. The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support,

7176-544: The latter sense. The history of the Muslim world spans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology during the Islamic Golden Age . Muslims look for guidance to the Quran and believe in the prophetic mission of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , but disagreements on other matters have led to

7280-481: The moral and mental capacity of transmitters/narrators. John Wansbrough argues that the isnads are should not be accepted, because of their "internal contradiction, anonymity, and arbitrary nature": specifically the lack of any information about many of the transmitters of the hadith other than found in these biographical evaluations, thus putting into question whether they are "pseudohistorical projections", i.e. names made up by later transmitters. Common-link theory

7384-489: The names of authorities, popular figures, and sometimes even fictitious figures would be supplied. Over time, isnads would be polished to meet stricter standards. Additional concerns are raised by the substantial percentages of hadith that traditional critics are reported to have dismissed and difficulties in parsing out historical hadith from the vast pool of ahistorical ones. This perspective casts doubt on traditional methods of hadith verification, given their presupposition that

7488-410: The notion of a Partial Common Link (PCL), which represents points of convergence of multiple isnads taking place among transmitters located after the common link themselves. In other words, a group of traditions may converge at one transmitter, and that transmitters version of a tradition may converge among yet other versions at what is ultimately the common link. While Schact believed that the common link

7592-583: The original figure believed to have conveyed the tradition. Juynboll sees such "spiders" as fabricated isnads. Juynboll referred to attempts to create isnads bypassing the CL or PCL as "dives". Direct forerunners to the ICMA approach, involving the combined study of the isnad and matn, included Jan Kramers' 1953 article "Une tradition à tendance manichéenne" and Josef van Ess in his 1975 volume Zwischen Ḥadīṯ und Theologie . The formal development of ICMA would only come with

7696-404: The other by Schoeler. The primary advocate of ICMA in the initial stages of the development and application of the method was Motkzi; Motzki believed that the oral transmission of hadith would result in a progressive divergence of multiple versions of the same original report along different lines of transmitters. By comparing them to pinpoint shared wording, motifs and plots, the original version of

7800-685: The overwhelming majority in Central Asia, the majority in the Caucasus , and widespread in Southeast Asia. India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries. Pakistan , Bangladesh , Iran , and Egypt are home to the world’s second, fourth, sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations respectively. Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas , Russia , India , China , and Europe . Islam

7904-722: The population. Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims. The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population. The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects : Sunnis , Shi'as and Kharijites . Each sect developed distinct jurisprudence schools ( madhhab ) reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence ( fiqh ). The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi , Maliki , Shafi'i , and Hanbali . The major Shi'a branches are Twelver (Imami), Ismaili (Sevener) and Zaidi (Fiver). Isma'ilism later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta’li Ismaili , and then Mustaali

8008-551: The primary points of contention are the Sunnah (and its relevance to modern times) and the authenticity of hadith. The primary issue voiced by traditionalists is that rejections of the authority of the historicity of hadith will cause future generations to abandon the Sunnah; modernists rebut that this concern stems from a misunderstanding of the mission of Muhammad leading to an acceptance of statements attributed to him that could not be true. "Believing tongues these days are passing around an unknown tradition, whether it proceeded from

8112-435: The progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of the Tripoli Campaign , Anglo-Russian action in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions". In a modern geopolitical sense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer to countries in which Islam is widespread , although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion. Some scholars and commentators have criticised

8216-638: The prosperous Indo-Gangetic Plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, Razia Sultana . Notable major empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of the Abbasids , Fatimids , Almoravids , Gao Empire , Seljukids , largest contiguous Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries) of Sahel , West Africa , southern North Africa and western Central Africa which dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge of Timbuktu , Djenne , Oualata and Gao , Ajuran , Adal and Warsangali in Somalia , Mughals in

8320-475: The question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such as secularism , nationalism (especially Arab nationalism and Pan-Arabism , as opposed to Pan-Islamism ), socialism (see also Arab socialism and socialism in Iran ), democracy (see Islamic democracy ), republicanism (see also Islamic republic ), liberalism and progressivism , feminism , capitalism and more. Scholars often use

8424-409: The ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secular Enlightenment principles. Muhammad Atta , one of the 11 September hijackers , reportedly quoted from the Quran to allay his fears: "Fight them, and God will chastise them at your hands/And degrade them, and He will help you/Against them, and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe", referring to

8528-629: The reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah , Ruhollah Khomeini . Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by Sharia law. In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in

8632-479: The rise of Pan-Islamism ; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers. The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan. Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries. In

8736-548: The role of the imam . Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍ Shura (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr , Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in

8840-476: The same report but from different transmitters, assessing the reliability and character of the transmitters listed in the chain (although Muhammad's companions, the sahaba , were excluded from this as their association with Muhammad immediately guaranteed their character and competence), and the lack of gaps in the chain. By implication, defects in hadith might assumed to be associated with the lack of character ( ʿadāla ) or competence ( ḍābiṯ ) of its transmitters. It

8944-421: The same tradition back to them. It is up to the investigator to determine if a CL or PCL is authentic, and Juynboll argued that the historical plausibility of a common-link is raised the more PCLs converge on it. Another term Juynboll introduced into common-link theory was a "spider"; this refers to single strands of transmission that completely bypass the CL of many other versions of a report in finding their way to

9048-402: The second. Motzki, D. Santillana, G.H. Juynboll, Fazlur Rahman and James Robson take the middle position. These figures believed that forgery began very early and such forged material went on to contaminate what would be collected into the authentic group of hadith, with only a small number of hadith actually originated with Muhammad or his followers. In his Muslim Studies , Goldziher states: "it

9152-588: The term Age of the Islamic Gunpowders to describe period the Safavid , Ottoman and Mughal states. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developed firearms , especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires. They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries. During the 17th–18th centuries, when the Indian subcontinent

9256-458: The term "Islamism" has been criticized as having been given connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, by the Western mass media, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping. More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim, with an estimated total of approximately 1.9 billion. Muslims are the majority in 49 countries, they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city of Karachi has

9360-426: The term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g. Egypt 's citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority. Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries'

9464-410: The tradition. Sunnah became a source of divine revelation ( wahy ) and the basis of classical Islamic law ( Sharia ), especially in consideration of the brevity dedicated to the subject of law in the Quran (which, for example, does not comment in detail on ritual like Ghusl or Wudu , or salat , the correct forms of salutations, and the importance of benevolence to slaves.) Al Shafi'is advocacy played

9568-432: The work of Harald Motzki , Gregor Schoeler , and Andreas Görke in the 1990s. In the 1990s, hadith historians developed a method known as isnad-cum-matn analysis (ICMA) as an alternative approach compared with traditional hadith sciences towards identifying the origins and developmental stages of hadith traditions. ICMA was invented twice independently in two publications that came out in 1996, one by Harald Motzki and

9672-477: The works of Joseph Schacht and G.H.A. Juynboll . In his 1950 book The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence , Schact introduced the concept of the "Common Link" (CL) to refer to the earliest point at which multiple chains of transmission (isnads) intersect. For Schact, the CL was equivalent to the point of origins of the tradition. Later, G.H.A. Juynboll would elaborate on and systematize earlier earlier applications of common-link theory. Importantly, he introduced

9776-1092: The world population are Muslims. By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the Middle East - North Africa ( MENA ), 89% in Central Asia , 40% in Southeast Asia , 31% in South Asia , 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa , 25% in Asia , 1.4% in Oceania , 6% in Europe , and 1% in the Americas . Most Muslims are of one of two denominations : Sunni Islam (87–90%) and Shia (10–13%). However, other denominations exist in pockets, such as Ibadi (primarily in Oman ). Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of

9880-415: The world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni. Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%, Azerbaijan – 65%, Iraq – 60%, Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%, Turkey – 10%, Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%, and India – 10%. Non-denominational Muslims make up

9984-408: Was a legitimate purveyor of the tradition in question, Juynboll introduced the idea of a "seeming" CL or PCL, meaning that while several isnads may converge at a particular common link, the common link themselves may be artificial. In reality, several isnads may have been fabricated and, in this case, a particular transmitter only turns up as a common link because several later figures falsely attributed

10088-478: Was absolutely impartial, but he did believe that there were some who were moderate and unbiased. Henri Lammens was biased but, for Okiç, Ignaz Goldziher , was objective. He encouraging his students to familiarize themselves with Western work and the languages. One of his students, Talât Koçyiğit, went on to translate four papers by James Robson (d. 1981) into Turkish and critiqued Goldziher in one article. Koçyiğit also believed that some critics were impartial but took

10192-415: Was also thought that such faulty transmitters could be identified and that the isnad was a direct reflection of the history of transmission of a tradition. Evaluation rarely looked at the content ( matn ) of a narration as opposed to its isnad. Ultimately, evaluations of hadith remained haphazard between authors until the practice of the hadith sciences was standardized by Ibn al-Salah in the 13th century. It

10296-487: Was born in Damascus . His name, Ibn adh-Dhahabi (son of the goldsmith), reveals his father's profession. He began his study of hadith at age eighteen, travelling from Damascus to Baalbek , Homs , Hama , Aleppo , Nabulus , Cairo , Alexandria , Jerusalem , Hijaz , and elsewhere, before returning to Damascus to teach and write. He authored many works and was widely renown as a perspicuous critic and expert examiner of

10400-1147: Was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis . It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the Druze faith, although Druzes do not identify as Muslims. Twelver Shiism developed Ja'fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism , and other movements such as Alawites , Shaykism and Alevism . Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: Sufris , Azariqa , Najdat , Adjarites and Ibadis . Among these numerous branches, only Hanafi , Maliki , Shafi'i , Hanbali , Imamiyyah - Ja'fari - Usuli , Nizārī Ismā'īlī , Alevi , Zaydi , Ibadi , Zahiri , Alawite , Druze and Taiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims and Ahmadi Muslims later emerged independently. There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes, Christians , Jews , Hindus , Buddhists , Baháʼís , Druzes , Yazidis , Mandaeans , Yarsanis and Zoroastrians . The Muslim world

10504-594: Was invited to establish a new constitution for the city under his leadership. This migration, called the Hijra , marks the first year of the Islamic calendar . By the time of his death, Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina, Mecca, the surrounding region, and numerous other tribes in the Arabian Peninsula . After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (the Caliphs ) continued to lead

10608-468: Was needed "to abolish the negative influences of jahili life." As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union. Turkey has been governed as a secular state since

10712-534: Was ruled by Mughal Empire 's sixth ruler Muhammad Auranzgeb through sharia and Islamic economics , India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP. "Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason." Ibrahim Muteferrika , Rational basis for

10816-582: Was the modern jahliliyyah . His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, the Scientific Revolution , "denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character"

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