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64-502: The Murchison Widefield Array ( MWA ) is a joint project between an international consortium of organisations to construct and operate a low-frequency radio array . 'Widefield' refers to its very large field of view (on the order of 30 degrees across). Operating in the frequency range 70–300 MHz, the main scientific goals of the MWA are to detect neutral atomic Hydrogen emission from the cosmological Epoch of Reionization (EoR), to study

128-407: A star system tend to be small fractions of a light-year, and are usually expressed in astronomical units . However, smaller units of length can similarly be formed usefully by multiplying units of time by the speed of light. For example, the light-second , useful in astronomy, telecommunications and relativistic physics, is exactly 299 792 458 metres or ⁠ 1 / 31 557 600 ⁠ of

192-486: A unit of time . The light-year is most often used when expressing distances to stars and other distances on a galactic scale, especially in non-specialist contexts and popular science publications. The unit most commonly used in professional astronomy is the parsec (symbol: pc, about 3.26 light-years). As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the light-year

256-534: A 4x4 square. As part of a planned future roll out infrastructure on-site at the MRO was installed during Phase I to allow an eventual build-out to 256 tiles. The total cost of the first phase of the project was A$ 51 million. The Phase I array was largely driven by the second MWA director, Steven Tingay . In 2017 the telescope received the planned upgrade, doubling both the number of antennas, resulting in an increase in resolution and sensitivity. This upgraded instrument

320-428: A diameter of 110 m (360 ft), is expected to become the world's largest fully steerable single-dish radio telescope when completed in 2028. A more typical radio telescope has a single antenna of about 25 meters diameter. Dozens of radio telescopes of about this size are operated in radio observatories all over the world. Since 1965, humans have launched three space-based radio telescopes. The first one, KRT-10,

384-399: A four by four regular grid of dual-polarization dipole elements arranged on a 4m x 4m steel mesh ground plane. Each antenna (with its 16 dipoles) is known as a "tile". Signals from each dipole pass through a low noise amplifier (LNA) and are combined in an analogue beamformer to produce tile beams on the sky. Beamformers sit next to the tiles in the field. The radio frequency (RF) signals from

448-787: A large physically connected radio telescope array is the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope , located in Pune , India . The largest array, the Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR), finished in 2012, is located in western Europe and consists of about 81,000 small antennas in 48 stations distributed over an area several hundreds of kilometers in diameter and operates between 1.25 and 30 m wavelengths. VLBI systems using post-observation processing have been constructed with antennas thousands of miles apart. Radio interferometers have also been used to obtain detailed images of

512-412: A light-year. Units such as the light-minute, light-hour and light-day are sometimes used in popular science publications. The light-month, roughly one-twelfth of a light-year, is also used occasionally for approximate measures. The Hayden Planetarium specifies the light month more precisely as 30 days of light travel time. Light travels approximately one foot in a nanosecond ; the term "light-foot"

576-417: A membership of 270 individual scientists. The expansion of the collaboration was largely the work of the then MWA Board Chair (January 2014 – January 2018) and current MWA director, Melanie Johnston-Hollitt . The MWA Project is composed of the following project partners as of 2018: Funding for the MWA to date has been provided by partner institutions and by allocations from national funding agencies:

640-481: A radio telescope needs for a useful resolution. Radio telescopes that operate at wavelengths of 3 meters to 30 cm (100 MHz to 1 GHz) are usually well over 100 meters in diameter. Telescopes working at wavelengths shorter than 30 cm (above 1 GHz) range in size from 3 to 90 meters in diameter. The increasing use of radio frequencies for communication makes astronomical observations more and more difficult (see Open spectrum ). Negotiations to defend

704-692: A resolution of 0.2 arc seconds at 3 cm wavelengths. Martin Ryle 's group in Cambridge obtained a Nobel Prize for interferometry and aperture synthesis. The Lloyd's mirror interferometer was also developed independently in 1946 by Joseph Pawsey 's group at the University of Sydney . In the early 1950s, the Cambridge Interferometer mapped the radio sky to produce the famous 2C and 3C surveys of radio sources. An example of

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768-502: A single antenna whose diameter is equal to the spacing of the antennas furthest apart in the array. A high-quality image requires a large number of different separations between telescopes. Projected separation between any two telescopes, as seen from the radio source, is called a baseline. For example, the Very Large Array (VLA) near Socorro, New Mexico has 27 telescopes with 351 independent baselines at once, which achieves

832-486: A very large field of view, on the order of 30 degrees across, able to cover a wide range of scientific goals. In Phase I the array provided a wealth of scientific papers covering topics such as detection of H II region (s) in the Galactic plane, limits on radio emission from extra-solar planets, observations of haloes and relics in galaxy clusters to detection of transient radio sources and space debris tracking. Two of

896-524: Is Nyquist -sampled at high precision. Digital elements in the receiver (after the digitizer) are used to transform the time-series data to the frequency domain with a 1.28 MHz resolution – 5 bits real and 5 bits imaginary for each resolution element. Sets of 1.28 MHz coarse frequency channels are transmitted via an optical fiber connection to the correlator subsystem, located in the CSIRO Data Processing Facility near

960-560: Is "ly", International standards like ISO 80000:2006 (now superseded) have used "l.y." and localized abbreviations are frequent, such as "al" in French, Spanish, and Italian (from année-lumière , año luz and anno luce , respectively), "Lj" in German (from Lichtjahr ), etc. Before 1984, the tropical year (not the Julian year) and a measured (not defined) speed of light were included in

1024-402: Is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances and is equal to exactly 9 460 730 472 580 .8 km , which is approximately 5.88 trillion mi. As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a light-year is the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year (365.25 days). Despite its inclusion of the word "year", the term should not be misinterpreted as

1088-632: Is also the site of CSIRO 's Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) and one of two selected sites in Australia for the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). In addition to the geographic link, the MWA is one of four official SKA precursor telescopes – instruments that provide instrumental, scientific and operational information to help guide SKA developments, along with two sites in South Africa, HERA and MeerKAT. The MWA

1152-533: Is an odd name. In 1868 an English journal labelled the light-year as a unit used by the Germans. Eddington called the light-year an inconvenient and irrelevant unit, which had sometimes crept from popular use into technical investigations. Although modern astronomers often prefer to use the parsec , light-years are also popularly used to gauge the expanses of interstellar and intergalactic space. Distances expressed in light-years include those between stars in

1216-453: Is built into a natural karst depression in the landscape in Guizhou province and cannot move; the feed antenna is in a cabin suspended above the dish on cables. The active dish is composed of 4,450 moveable panels controlled by a computer. By changing the shape of the dish and moving the feed cabin on its cables, the telescope can be steered to point to any region of the sky up to 40° from

1280-527: Is in the constellation Norma at right ascension 16h 27m 59.5s, declination −52°35′04.3". The object produces pulses at 154 MHz of peak flux densities of up to S154MHz = 45  Jy . Scaling this to 1.4 GHz would indicate S1.4 GHz = 3.5 Jy and, therefore, a luminosity L1.4 GHz = 4×10^31 ergs ^−1. It is speculated to be similar to a pulsar or magnetar . The object was discovered by Tyrone O'Doherty as part of his undergraduate honours project supervised by Dr Hurley-Walker. An MWA antenna consists of

1344-517: Is known as the "Phase II MWA". Phase II was practically completed in October 2017 and officially launched on 23 April 2018. Installation of the additional antennas and commissioning of the array was led by the third MWA director, Randall Wayth and operation of the Phase II instruments have been led by the current director, Melanie Johnston-Hollitt . The MWA is an inherently versatile instrument with

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1408-570: Is the product of the Julian year (365.25 days, as opposed to the 365.2425-day Gregorian year or the 365.24219-day Tropical year that both approximate) and the speed of light ( 299 792 458  m/s ). Both of these values are included in the IAU (1976) System of Astronomical Constants , used since 1984. From this, the following conversions can be derived: The abbreviation used by the IAU for light-year

1472-598: Is the product of the J1900.0 mean tropical year and the defined speed of light. Abbreviations used for light-years and multiples of light-years are: The light-year unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni , and he used a 160-millimetre (6.2 in) heliometre designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer . The largest unit for expressing distances across space at that time

1536-569: The One-Mile Telescope ), arrays of one-dimensional antennas (e.g., the Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope ) or two-dimensional arrays of omnidirectional dipoles (e.g., Tony Hewish's Pulsar Array ). All of the telescopes in the array are widely separated and are usually connected using coaxial cable , waveguide , optical fiber , or other type of transmission line . Recent advances in

1600-759: The Sun , the heliosphere , the Earth's ionosphere , and radio transient phenomena , as well as map the extragalactic radio sky. It is located at the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory (MRO). Along with the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder (ASKAP), also at the MRO, and two radio telescopes in South Africa, the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array (HERA) and MeerKAT ,

1664-405: The electromagnetic spectrum that makes up the radio spectrum is very large. As a consequence, the types of antennas that are used as radio telescopes vary widely in design, size, and configuration. At wavelengths of 30 meters to 3 meters (10–100 MHz), they are generally either directional antenna arrays similar to "TV antennas" or large stationary reflectors with movable focal points. Since

1728-709: The frequency allocation for parts of the spectrum most useful for observing the universe are coordinated in the Scientific Committee on Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Science. Some of the more notable frequency bands used by radio telescopes include: The world's largest filled-aperture (i.e. full dish) radio telescope is the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) completed in 2016 by China . The 500-meter-diameter (1,600 ft) dish with an area as large as 30 football fields

1792-546: The zenith by moving the suspended feed antenna , giving use of a 270-meter diameter portion of the dish for any individual observation. The largest individual radio telescope of any kind is the RATAN-600 located near Nizhny Arkhyz , Russia , which consists of a 576-meter circle of rectangular radio reflectors, each of which can be pointed towards a central conical receiver. The above stationary dishes are not fully "steerable"; they can only be aimed at points in an area of

1856-468: The "faint hiss" repeated on a cycle of 23 hours and 56 minutes. This period is the length of an astronomical sidereal day , the time it takes any "fixed" object located on the celestial sphere to come back to the same location in the sky. Thus Jansky suspected that the hiss originated outside of the Solar System , and by comparing his observations with optical astronomical maps, Jansky concluded that

1920-496: The IAU (1964) System of Astronomical Constants, used from 1968 to 1983. The product of Simon Newcomb 's J1900.0 mean tropical year of 31 556 925 .9747 ephemeris seconds and a speed of light of 299 792 .5 km/s produced a light-year of 9.460 530 × 10  m (rounded to the seven significant digits in the speed of light) found in several modern sources was probably derived from an old source such as C. W. Allen 's 1973 Astrophysical Quantities reference work, which

1984-618: The MWA Collaboration such as the initial release of the GLEAM survey are also available via various international scientific databases for subsequent analysis and interpretation. During Phase I, the MWA consortium initially comprised 110 individual researchers drawn from 12 institutions from Australia, New Zealand, the United States and India. New Zealand joined the consortium in late 2011 and an additional two institutions from

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2048-1393: The MWA computer hardware was given through an IBM Shared University Research Grant awarded to Victoria University of Wellington and Curtin University (PIs: Johnston-Hollitt and Tingey). Radio telescope#Radio interferometry Since astronomical radio sources such as planets , stars , nebulas and galaxies are very far away, the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak, so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them, and extremely sensitive receiving equipment. Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ("dish") antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes. They may be used individually or linked together electronically in an array. Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, television , radar , motor vehicles, and other man-made electronic devices. Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey using an antenna built to study radio receiver noise. The first purpose-built radio telescope

2112-631: The MWA is one of four precursors to the international project known as the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). The MWA was to be situated at Mileura Station where initial testing had been conducted then moved southwest to Boolardy Station in outback Western Australia , at the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory (MRO), 800 kilometres (500 mi) north of Perth. This location offers a quiet radio environment and stable climate for observations. The MRO

2176-409: The MWA operated in two configurations, a compact configuration and an extended configuration of 128 tiles each. The compact configuration consists of seven Phase I receivers and 56 tiles, plus 72 new tiles arranged in two dense hexagonal configurations each of 36 close-packed tiles. The new hexagonal super tiles in the compact configuration make use of the concept of "redundant spacings" to help calibrate

2240-590: The MWA site. MWA shares the CSIRO facility with the ASKAP program. In Phase I the majority of the tiles (112) were scattered across a roughly 1.5 km core region, forming an array with very high imaging quality, and a field of view of several hundred square degrees at a resolution of several arcminutes. The remaining 16 tiles are placed at locations outside the core, yielding baseline distances of about 3 km to allow higher angular resolution observations. In Phase II

2304-507: The Milky Way as the first off-world radio source, and he went on to conduct the first sky survey at very high radio frequencies, discovering other radio sources. The rapid development of radar during World War II created technology which was applied to radio astronomy after the war, and radio astronomy became a branch of astronomy, with universities and research institutes constructing large radio telescopes. The range of frequencies in

2368-959: The New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development (now the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment), the United States National Science Foundation , the Australian Research Council (ARC), the Australian National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS) administered by Astronomy Australia Ltd., and the Australia-India Strategic Research Fund Overview (AISRF). In addition, support for

2432-475: The United States were added in 2014 taking the total number of Phase I partner organizations to 14. By the end of Phase I there were 160 individual research scientists involved in the MWA. Membership of the MWA consortium was substantially expanded for Phase II with the admission of Canada, China and Japan, though India left the consortium at this time. Nevertheless, at the start of Phase II the MWA had expanded to 21 partner organizations across six countries and had

2496-793: The anisotropies and the polarization of the Cosmic Microwave Background , like the CBI interferometer in 2004. The world's largest physically connected telescope, the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), is planned to start operations in 2025. Many astronomical objects are not only observable in visible light but also emit radiation at radio wavelengths . Besides observing energetic objects such as pulsars and quasars , radio telescopes are able to "image" most astronomical objects such as galaxies , nebulae , and even radio emissions from planets . Light-year A light-year , alternatively spelled light year ( ly or lyr ),

2560-637: The array to high precision for detection of the EoR. The extended configuration consists of nine Phase I receivers and 72 original tiles, plus an additional 56 new long baseline tiles that provide baselines distances of about 5 km. The original correlator subsystem comprises Poly-phase Filter Bank (PFB) boards that convert the 1.28 MHz coarse frequency channels into channels with 10 kHz frequency resolution in preparation for cross-correlation. Correlator boards then cross-multiply signals from all tiles to form visibility data. A distributed clock signal drives

2624-422: The coherence of receivers in the field and maintains timing for the correlator. This system is only capable of ingesting the data from 128 tiles and thus, while the array currently comprises 256 tiles, only half of the tiles are correlated at a time, giving rise to the two configurations discussed above. The MWA Collaboration plan to replace this correlator in the near future with a newer machine, capable of ingesting

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2688-581: The data from all 256 tiles. The MWA is operated remotely through an interface to a Monitor and Control (M&C) software package resident on a dedicated computer located within the CSIRO Data Processing Facility at the MWA site. The M&C software maintains a state-based description of the hardware and an event-driven database describing the observation scheduling of the Instrument. M&C software commands several elements of

2752-438: The mental picture of the approximate transit time for light, but he refrained from using the light-year as a unit. He may have resisted expressing distances in light-years because it would reduce the accuracy of his parallax data due to multiplying with the uncertain parameter of the speed of light. The speed of light was not yet precisely known in 1838; the estimate of its value changed in 1849 ( Fizeau ) and 1862 ( Foucault ). It

2816-602: The most significant results from the Phase I MWA were: In January 2022, a team led by Dr Natasha Hurley-Walker of Curtin University re-analyzed 2018 GLEAM data and announced in Nature that object GLEAM-X J162759.5−523504.3 is a long periodicity (1,091.170 second / 18m11s) object, that provided a bright pulse of energy for up to a minute, and is some 4,000 light-years from Earth in the Milky Way galaxy. The derived position

2880-574: The radiation was coming from the Milky Way Galaxy and was strongest in the direction of the center of the galaxy, in the constellation of Sagittarius . An amateur radio operator, Grote Reber , was one of the pioneers of what became known as radio astronomy . He built the first parabolic "dish" radio telescope, 9 metres (30 ft) in diameter, in his back yard in Wheaton, Illinois in 1937. He repeated Jansky's pioneering work, identifying

2944-424: The received interfering radio source (static) could be pinpointed. A small shed to the side of the antenna housed an analog pen-and-paper recording system. After recording signals from all directions for several months, Jansky eventually categorized them into three types of static: nearby thunderstorms, distant thunderstorms, and a faint steady hiss above shot noise , of unknown origin. Jansky finally determined that

3008-419: The resolution through a process called aperture synthesis . This technique works by superposing ( interfering ) the signal waves from the different telescopes on the principle that waves that coincide with the same phase will add to each other while two waves that have opposite phases will cancel each other out. This creates a combined telescope that is equivalent in resolution (though not in sensitivity) to

3072-493: The same general area, such as those belonging to the same spiral arm or globular cluster . Galaxies themselves span from a few thousand to a few hundred thousand light-years in diameter, and are separated from neighbouring galaxies and galaxy clusters by millions of light-years. Distances to objects such as quasars and the Sloan Great Wall run up into the billions of light-years. Distances between objects within

3136-646: The site to the MWA archive located at the end of a high-bandwidth network connection. The primary MWA data archive is located in Perth at the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre . As of December 2018 the resultant initially calibrated data are then provided to the international astronomical community via the MWA node of the Australian All-Sky Virtual Observatory (ASVO). Significant processed data products produced by

3200-654: The sky near the zenith , and cannot receive from sources near the horizon. The largest fully steerable dish radio telescope is the 100 meter Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia , United States, constructed in 2000. The largest fully steerable radio telescope in Europe is the Effelsberg 100-m Radio Telescope near Bonn , Germany, operated by the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy , which also

3264-404: The stability of electronic oscillators also now permit interferometry to be carried out by independent recording of the signals at the various antennas, and then later correlating the recordings at some central processing facility. This process is known as Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) . Interferometry does increase the total signal collected, but its primary purpose is to vastly increase

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3328-468: The system including pointing and tracking of the beamformers, frequency selection of the receivers, correlation parameters for the correlator, and RTC/RTS functions, amongst others. The M&C system contributes to the MWA archive by storing instrument "metadata" into an external database. This includes both the instrument configurations for each observation and also housekeeping information collected from various hardware components. Data are transferred from

3392-481: The tile-beams are transmitted to a receiver, each receiver being able to process the signals from a group of eight tiles. Receivers therefore sit in the field, close to groups of eight tiles; cables between receivers and beamformers carry data, power and control signals. Power for the receivers is provided from a central generator. The receiver contains analogue elements to condition the signals in preparation for sampling and digitization. The frequency range 80–300 MHz

3456-410: The wavelengths being observed with these types of antennas are so long, the "reflector" surfaces can be constructed from coarse wire mesh such as chicken wire . At shorter wavelengths parabolic "dish" antennas predominate. The angular resolution of a dish antenna is determined by the ratio of the diameter of the dish to the wavelength of the radio waves being observed. This dictates the dish size

3520-572: The zenith. Although the dish is 500 meters in diameter, only a 300-meter circular area on the dish is illuminated by the feed antenna at any given time, so the actual effective aperture is 300 meters. Construction began in 2007 and was completed July 2016 and the telescope became operational September 25, 2016. The world's second largest filled-aperture telescope was the Arecibo radio telescope located in Arecibo, Puerto Rico , though it suffered catastrophic collapse on 1 December 2020. Arecibo

3584-565: Was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his back yard in Wheaton, Illinois in 1937. The sky survey he performed is often considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy. The first radio antenna used to identify an astronomical radio source was built by Karl Guthe Jansky , an engineer with Bell Telephone Laboratories , in 1932. Jansky was assigned the task of identifying sources of static that might interfere with radiotelephone service. Jansky's antenna

3648-412: Was an array of dipoles and reflectors designed to receive short wave radio signals at a frequency of 20.5 MHz (wavelength about 14.6 meters). It was mounted on a turntable that allowed it to rotate in any direction, earning it the name "Jansky's merry-go-round." It had a diameter of approximately 100 ft (30 m) and stood 20 ft (6 m) tall. By rotating the antenna, the direction of

3712-520: Was attached to Salyut 6 orbital space station in 1979. In 1997, Japan sent the second, HALCA . The last one was sent by Russia in 2011 called Spektr-R . One of the most notable developments came in 1946 with the introduction of the technique called astronomical interferometry , which means combining the signals from multiple antennas so that they simulate a larger antenna, in order to achieve greater resolution. Astronomical radio interferometers usually consist either of arrays of parabolic dishes (e.g.,

3776-655: Was initially conceived as a 512-tile instrument (512T) to be built in stages. The first stage was a 32-tile prototype (MWA-32T), which was constructed and operated with increasing capability over the period 2007–2011, testing telescope hardware and making preliminary science observations, including initial observations of EoR fields. The first phase of the telescope, the so-called "Phase I MWA" achieved full practical completion in late 2012 and completed commissioning on 20 June 2013, before moving into full operations. The Phase I MWA fully cross-correlates signals from 128 phased tiles, each of which consist of 16 crossed dipoles arranged in

3840-432: Was not yet considered to be a fundamental constant of nature, and the propagation of light through the aether or space was still enigmatic. The light-year unit appeared in 1851 in a German popular astronomical article by Otto Ule . Ule explained the oddity of a distance unit name ending in "year" by comparing it to a walking hour ( Wegstunde ). A contemporary German popular astronomical book also noticed that light-year

3904-431: Was one of the world's few radio telescope also capable of active (i.e., transmitting) radar imaging of near-Earth objects (see: radar astronomy ); most other telescopes employ passive detection, i.e., receiving only. Arecibo was another stationary dish telescope like FAST. Arecibo's 305 m (1,001 ft) dish was built into a natural depression in the landscape, the antenna was steerable within an angle of about 20° of

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3968-440: Was the astronomical unit , equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit at 150 million kilometres (93 million miles). In those terms, trigonometric calculations based on 61 Cygni's parallax of 0.314 arcseconds, showed the distance to the star to be 660 000 astronomical units (9.9 × 10  km; 6.1 × 10  mi). Bessel added that light takes 10.3 years to traverse this distance. He recognized that his readers would enjoy

4032-640: Was the world's largest fully steerable telescope for 30 years until the Green Bank antenna was constructed. The third-largest fully steerable radio telescope is the 76-meter Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory in Cheshire , England, completed in 1957. The fourth-largest fully steerable radio telescopes are six 70-meter dishes: three Russian RT-70 , and three in the NASA Deep Space Network . The planned Qitai Radio Telescope , at

4096-438: Was updated in 2000, including the IAU (1976) value cited above (truncated to 10 significant digits). Other high-precision values are not derived from a coherent IAU system. A value of 9.460 536 207 × 10  m found in some modern sources is the product of a mean Gregorian year (365.2425 days or 31 556 952  s ) and the defined speed of light ( 299 792 458  m/s ). Another value, 9.460 528 405 × 10  m ,

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