87-594: The Murray Mallee is a grain -growing and sheep -farming area in the east of the Australian state of South Australia . The name is not formally designated but is widely used to refer to an area of approximately 20,000 square kilometres (7700 square miles) bounded by the River Murray on its northern and western sides, the Victorian border on its eastern side, and up to about 50 kilometres (30 miles) south of
174-657: A grain elevator or silo , to be sold later. Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed-eating birds and rodents . When the cereal is ready to be distributed, it is sold to a manufacturing facility that first removes the outer layers of the grain for subsequent milling for flour or other processing steps, to produce foods such as flour, oatmeal , or pearl barley . In developing countries, processing may be traditional, in artisanal workshops, as with tortilla production in Central America. Most cereals can be processed in
261-577: A 1979 study, its presumed ancestor is either Chenopodium berlandieri , from North America, or the Andean species Ch. hircinum , although more recent studies, in 2011, even suggest Old World relatives. On the other hand, morphological features relate Ch. quinoa of the Andes and Ch. nuttalliae of Mexico. Some studies have suggested that both species may have been derived from the same wild type. A weedy quinoa, Ch. quinoa var. melanospermum ,
348-444: A balanced diet. Many legumes, however, are deficient in the essential amino acid methionine , which grains contain. Thus, a combination of legumes with grains forms a well-balanced diet for vegetarians. Such combinations include dal (lentils) with rice by South Indians and Bengalis , beans with maize tortillas , tofu with rice, and peanut butter with wholegrain wheat bread (as sandwiches) in several other cultures, including
435-620: A commercial scale. Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a soil pH of 6 to 8.5. The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging. Rotation is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with potato , cereals and legumes including Lupinus mutabilis . Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems. Yields are maximised when 170–200 kg/ha (150–180 lb/acre) of nitrogen
522-512: A complex picture. The degree to which individual producers benefit from the global quinoa boom depends on its mode of production , for example through producer associations and co-operatives such as the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua (founded in the 1970s), contracting through vertically integrated private firms, or wage labor. State regulation and enforcement may promote a shift to cash-cropping among some farmers and
609-401: A food trade imbalance and thus food security . Speculation , as well as other compounding production and supply factors leading up to the 2007–2008 financial crises , created rapid inflation of grain prices during the 2007–2008 world food price crisis . Other disruptions, such as climate change or war related changes to supply or transportation can create further food insecurity; for example
696-401: A low gastrointestinal irritant. In South America, these saponins have many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a folk medicine antiseptic for skin injuries. Additionally, the leaves and stems of all species of the genus Chenopodium and related genera of the family Amaranthaceae , including quinoa, contain high levels of oxalic acid . The plant's growth
783-562: A more interesting commodity and global excitement for it increased. At this point, Bolivia and Peru were the only major producers of quinoa. In 2013, there was an extreme increase in imports of quinoa by the United States, Canada and various European countries. In 2016, growth began to slow. Imports were still increasing but at a slower rate and quinoa prices declined as other countries began producing it. By 2015, over 75 countries were producing quinoa, as opposed to only eight countries in
870-557: A potential for increased yields in controlled environments, it has been selected as an experimental crop in NASA 's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights . In their natural state, the seeds have a coating that contains bitter-tasting saponins , making them unpalatable . Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and, therefore,
957-468: A rich source of the dietary minerals manganese (30% DV) and phosphorus (22% DV). However, cooked quinoa is reduced to being just a moderate source (10–19% DV) of dietary fiber and folate (11%), as well as of the dietary minerals iron (11%), magnesium (18%), and zinc (11%). (table). Quinoa is gluten-free . Because quinoa has a high concentration of protein and is a good source of many micronutrients , has versatility in preparation, and
SECTION 10
#17327657594821044-408: A role. Among the best-known cereals are maize, rice , wheat, barley, sorghum , millet , oat, rye and triticale . Some other grains are colloquially called cereals, even though they are not grasses; these pseudocereals include buckwheat , quinoa , and amaranth . All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way. Most are annual , so after sowing they are harvested just once. An exception
1131-425: A secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform). These are small, incomplete, sessile flowers of the same colour as the sepals, and both pistillate and perfect forms occur. Pistillate flowers are generally located at the proximal end of the glomeruli and the perfect ones at the distal end of it. A perfect flower has five sepals, five anthers and
1218-445: A shift toward subsistence production among others, while enabling many urban refugees to return to working the land , outcomes with complex and varied social effects. The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over food security of the original consumers, unsustainably intensive farming of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of
1305-536: A sugar . In the 20th century, industrial processes developed around chemically altering the grain, to be used for other processes. In particular, maize can be altered to produce food additives, such as corn starch and high-fructose corn syrup . Cereal production has a substantial impact on the environment. Tillage can lead to soil erosion and increased runoff. Irrigation consumes large quantities of water; its extraction from lakes, rivers, or aquifers may have multiple environmental effects , such as lowering
1392-496: A superior ovary, from which two to three stigmatic branches emerge. The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing , though cross-pollination occurs. In the natural environment, betalains serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination. The fruits (seeds) are about 2 mm ( 1 ⁄ 16 in) in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on
1479-685: A traditional, quinoa-based diet, whether because quinoa is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family, or because processed foods have higher status despite their poorer nutritional value . Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute quinoa more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance, including use in free school breakfasts and government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need. In terms of wider social consequences, research on traditional producers in Bolivia has emphasised
1566-500: A variety of ways. Rice processing , for instance, can create whole-grain or polished rice, or rice flour. Removal of the germ increases the longevity of grain in storage. Some grains can be malted , a process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying. These sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing, such as for making industrial alcohol , beer , whisky , or rice wine , or sold directly as
1653-628: Is 13% water, 64% carbohydrates , 14% protein , and 6% fat . Nutritional evaluations indicate that a 100 g ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 oz) serving of raw quinoa seeds has a food energy of 1,539 kJ (368 kcal) and is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value , DV) of protein, dietary fiber , several B vitamins , including 46% DV for folate , and for several dietary minerals such as magnesium (55% DV), manganese (95% DV), phosphorus (65% DV), and zinc (33% DV) (table). After boiling, which
1740-415: Is a dicotyledonous annual plant , usually about 1–2 m (3–7 ft) high. It has broad, generally powdery, hairy, lobed leaves, normally arranged alternately . The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which
1827-461: Is a grass cultivated for its edible grain . Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods . They include rice , wheat , rye , oats , barley , millet , and maize . Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa , are pseudocereals . Most cereals are annuals , producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial . Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in
SECTION 20
#17327657594821914-400: Is a flowering plant in the amaranth family . It is a herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds ; the seeds are rich in protein , dietary fiber , B vitamins and dietary minerals in amounts greater than in many grains. Quinoa is not a grass but rather a pseudocereal botanically related to spinach and amaranth ( Amaranthus spp.), and originated in
2001-439: Is available. The addition of phosphorus does not improve yield. The genome of quinoa was sequenced in 2017. Through traditional selective breeding and, potentially, genetic engineering , the plant is being modified to have higher crop yield , improved tolerance to heat and biotic stress , and greater sweetness through saponin inhibition. Traditionally, quinoa grain is harvested by hand, and only rarely by machine, because
2088-600: Is composed of two words coming from the Greek χήν,-νός, goose and πόδῖον, podion "little foot", or "goose foot", because of the resemblance of the leaves with the trace of a goose's foot. The specific epithet quinoa is a borrowing from the Spanish quinua or quinoa , itself derived from Quechua kinuwa . The Incas nicknamed quinoa chisiya mama , which in Quechua means "mother of all grains". Chenopodium quinoa
2175-456: Is highly variable due to the number of different subspecies, varieties and landraces (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, it is generally undemanding and altitude-hardy; it is grown from coastal regions to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Depending on
2262-465: Is known from South America, but no equivalent closely related to Ch. nutalliae has been reported from Mexico so far. Studies regarding the genetic diversity of quinoa suggest that it may have passed through at least three bottleneck genetic events, with a possible fourth expected: Over the last 5,000 years the biogeography of Ch. quinoa has changed greatly, mainly by human influence, convenience and preference. It has changed not only in
2349-614: Is no frost. Most cereals are planted in tilled soils , which reduces weeds and breaks up the surface of a field. Most cereals need regular water in the early part of their life cycle. Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields, though some strains are grown on dry land. Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions. Cool-season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones. These cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing, winter dormancy, and early summer harvesting, and spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer. Winter varieties have
2436-614: Is not required. Rice can be grown as a ratoon crop; and other researchers are exploring perennial cool-season cereals, such as kernza , being developed in the US. Fertilizer and pesticide usage may be reduced in some polycultures , growing several crops in a single field at the same time. Fossil fuel-based nitrogen fertilizer usage can be reduced by intercropping cereals with legumes which fix nitrogen . Greenhouse gas emissions may be cut further by more efficient irrigation or by water harvesting methods like contour trenching that reduce
2523-427: Is often used to make injera . It can be eaten as a warm breakfast cereal like farina with a chocolate or nutty flavor. The table shows the annual production of cereals in 1961, 1980, 2000, 2010, and 2019/2020. (millions of metric tons) Cereals are the most traded commodities by quantity in 2021, with wheat, maize, and rice the main cereals involved. The Americas and Europe are the largest exporters, and Asia
2610-401: Is partially due to the attention it received as a food that may help alleviate food insecurity in some world regions. Quinoa is high in protein , which makes it a possible alternative to meat for vegetarians and vegans, and for people who are lactose intolerant . It also has high concentrations of dietary minerals . Quinoa does not contain gluten . Some of these qualities may have improved
2697-510: Is rice, which although usually treated as an annual can survive as a perennial , producing a ratoon crop. Cereals adapted to a temperate climate , such as barley , oats , rye , spelt , triticale , and wheat , are called cool-season cereals. Those preferring a tropical climate , such as millet and sorghum , are called warm-season cereals. Cool-season cereals, especially rye, followed by barley, are hardy; they grow best in fairly cool weather, and stop growing, depending on variety, when
Murray Mallee - Misplaced Pages Continue
2784-610: Is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries. Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin. Quinoa is planted in Idaho where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude Snake River Plain is the largest planted variety in North America. Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on
2871-538: Is the largest importer. The largest exporter of maize is the US, while India is the largest exporter of rice. China is the largest importer of maize and of rice. Many other countries trade cereals, both as exporters and as importers. Cereals are traded as futures on world commodity markets , helping to mitigate the risks of changes in price for example, if harvests fail. Quinoa Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa ; / ˈ k iː n . w ɑː , k i ˈ n oʊ . ə / , from Quechua kinwa or kinuwa )
2958-512: Is the main ingredient of bread and pasta . Maize flour has been important in Mesoamerica since ancient times, with foods such as Mexican tortillas and tamales . Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe, while rice flour is common in Asia. A cereal grain consists of starchy endosperm , germ , and bran . Wholemeal flour contains all of these; white flour
3045-414: Is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, many nutritional evaluations change. Although a 100 g ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 oz) serving of cooked quinoa increases to 72% water, most nutritional evaluations are reduced, such as, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat, and the food energy of cooked quinoa is reduced to 503 kJ (120 kcal). Although similarly reduced, cooked quinoa remains
3132-402: Is without some or all of the germ or bran. Because cereals have a high starch content, they are often used to make industrial alcohol and alcoholic drinks by fermentation . For instance, beer is produced by brewing and fermenting starch , mainly from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley. Rice wines such as Japanese sake are brewed in Asia; a fermented rice and honey wine
3219-459: The Puccinia spp.) and powdery mildews . Fusarium head blight, caused by Fusarium graminearum , is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals. Other pressures include pest insects and wildlife like rodents and deer. In conventional agriculture, some farmers will apply fungicides or pesticides Annual cereals die when they have come to seed, and dry up. Harvesting begins once
3306-473: The "organic" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops . Cereals are grasses, in the Poaceae family, that produce edible grains . A cereal grain is botanically a caryopsis , a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp . Grasses have stems that are hollow except at
3393-570: The Andean region of northwestern South America. It was first used to feed livestock 5,200–7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000–4,000 years ago in the Lake Titicaca basin of Peru and Bolivia. The plant thrives at high elevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein. Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India,
3480-906: The Green Revolution , a technological change funded by development organizations. The strategies developed by the Green Revolution, including mechanized tilling, monoculture , nitrogen fertilizers, and breeding of new strains of seeds. These innovations focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but paid less attention to nutritional quality. These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low-quality proteins , with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates , and lack balanced essential fatty acids , vitamins , minerals and other quality factors. So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with
3567-553: The Mallee Highway . The formal designated name for approximately the same region is Murraylands . The Murray Mallee area is predominantly a vast plain of low elevation, with sandhills and gentle undulating sandy rises, interspersed by flats. The annual rainfall ranges from approximately 250 millimetres (9.8 inches) in the north to 400 millimetres (16 inches) further south. The area was very lightly populated, with marginal pastoral runs of sheep at low stocking rates, until
Murray Mallee - Misplaced Pages Continue
3654-492: The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 disrupted Ukrainian and Russian wheat supplies causing a global food price crisis in 2022 that affected countries heavily dependent on wheat flour. Cereals are the world's largest crops by tonnage of grain produced. Three cereals, maize, wheat, and rice, together accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012, and 43% of the global supply of food energy in 2009, while
3741-512: The cultivar . In regards to the "newly" developed salinity resistance of C. quinoa , some studies have concluded that accumulation of organic osmolytes plays a dual role for the species. They provide osmotic adjustment, in addition to protection against oxidative stress of the photosynthetic structures in developing leaves. Studies also suggested that reduction in stomatal density in reaction to salinity levels represents an essential instrument of defence to optimize water use efficiency under
3828-400: The nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals. The flowers are usually hermaphroditic , with the exception of maize , and mainly anemophilous or wind-pollinated, although insects occasionally play
3915-623: The water table and cause salination of aquifers. Fertilizer production contributes to global warming , and its use can lead to pollution and eutrophication of waterways. Arable farming uses large amounts of fossil fuel , releasing greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming. Pesticide usage can cause harm to wildlife, such as to bees . Some of the impacts of growing cereals can be mitigated by changing production practices. Tillage can be reduced by no-till farming , such as by direct drilling of cereal seeds, or by developing and planting perennial crop varieties so that annual tilling
4002-657: The "quinoa bust" because of the devastation the price fall caused for farmers and industry. Rising quinoa prices over the period of 2006 to 2017 may have reduced the affordability of quinoa to traditional consumers. However, a 2016 study using Peru's Encuesta Nacional de Hogares found that rising quinoa prices during 2004–2013 led to net economic benefits for producers, and other commentary indicated similar conclusions, including for women specifically. It has also been suggested that as quinoa producers rise above subsistence-level income , they switch their own consumption to Western processed foods which are often less healthy than
4089-474: The 1880s. Most of the remaining natural vegetation is in protected areas such as Ngarkat Conservation Park , Billiatt Conservation Park , Karte Conservation Park , Peebinga Conservation Park , Bakara Conservation Park and Lowan Conservation Park . 35°S 140°E / 35°S 140°E / -35; 140 This South Australia geography article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Cereal A cereal
4176-540: The Americas. For feeding animals , the amount of crude protein measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration. Cereals constitute the world's largest commodities by tonnage, whether measured by production or by international trade. Several major producers of cereals dominate the market. Because of the scale of the trade, some countries have become reliant on imports, thus cereals pricing or availability can have outsized impacts on countries with
4263-449: The Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall requirements are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from 300 to 1,000 mm (12 to 39 in) during the growing season . Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and no rain during seed maturation and harvesting. Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley of Colorado where it
4350-624: The Hittite Sun goddess of Arinna , the Canaanite Lahmu and the Roman Janus . Complex civilizations arose where cereal agriculture created a surplus, allowing for part of the harvest to be appropriated from farmers, allowing power to be concentrated in cities. During the second half of the 20th century, there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to
4437-446: The United States and European countries. As a result of increased popularity and consumption in North America, Europe, and Australasia , quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014. The species Chenopodium quinoa was first described by Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765–1812), a German botanist who studied plants from South America, brought back by explorers Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland . The genus name Chenopodium
SECTION 50
#17327657594824524-485: The advantage of using water when it is plentiful, and permitting a second crop after the early harvest. They flower only in spring as they require vernalization , exposure to cold for a specific period, fixed genetically. Spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy, so they may need irrigation. Cereal strains are bred for consistency and resilience to the local environmental conditions. The greatest constraints on yield are plant diseases , especially rusts (mostly
4611-476: The area of distribution, but also in regards to the climate this plant was originally adapted to, in contrast to the climates on which it is able to successfully grow in now. In a process started by a number of pre-Inca South American indigenous cultures, people in Chile have been adapting quinoa to salinity and other forms of stress over the last 3,000 years. Quinoa is also cultivated, since an early date, near
4698-641: The area. The main towns in the Murray Mallee are Karoonda , Lameroo and Pinnaroo . Towns along the River Murray are generally considered to be in the Riverland or Murraylands , rather than the Mallee. Originally the Murray Mallee was covered in thick mallee scrub . Large expanses – estimates are about 80% – of the mallee country were cleared for agricultural development, beginning as early as
4785-573: The autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres . Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic , some 8,000 years ago. Wheat and barley were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent ; rice
4872-603: The beginning of the 20th century. Artesian water was discovered at moderate depth, and 707 kilometres (439 miles) of railways were opened, mainly in the 1910s, to make shipping of grain economically feasible. The first railway was the Pinnaroo line in 1906 from Tailem Bend on the main Melbourne–Adelaide railway . The success of this line led to construction in 1913 of the Barmera railway line , curtailed at that stage on
4959-498: The cereal supply for other countries. Cereals provide food eaten directly as whole grains , usually cooked, or they are ground to flour and made into bread , porridge , and other products. Cereals have a high starch content, enabling them to be fermented into alcoholic drinks such as beer . Cereal farming has a substantial environmental impact , and is often produced in high-intensity monocultures . The environmental harms can be mitigated by sustainable practices which reduce
5046-570: The coast of northern Chile , where it was grown by the Chinchorro culture . Ch. quinoa was brought to the lowlands of south-central Chile at an early date from the Andean highlands. Varieties in the lowlands of south-central Chile derive directly from ancestral cultivars which then evolved in parallel to those of the highlands. It has been suggested that the introduction of Ch. quinoa occurred before highland varieties with floury perisperm emerged. There are wide discrepancies in
5133-624: The drawbacks of quinoa, meat production in most cases is still less sustainable than quinoa. Quinoa is an important food for the Indigenous people of the Andean Altiplano , especially the Aymara and Quechua communities. Historically, it was consumed as a subsistence food, which was devalued by the Spanish when they colonized the region. For the Indigenous communities, growing quinoa represented food security and well-being, and it
5220-627: The early 1940s; as of 2015 the crop is mostly grown in three areas by only some 300 smallholder farmers. Each of these areas is different: indigenous small-scale growers near the border with Bolivia who grow many types of Bolivian forms, a few farmers in the central region who exclusively grow a white-seeded variety and generally market their crops through a well-known cooperative, and in the south by women in home gardens in Mapuche reserves. When Amaranthaceae became abundant in Lake Pacucha , Peru,
5307-542: The extreme variability of the maturity period of most quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times. The crop yield in the Andean region (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines. The plants are allowed to stand until
SECTION 60
#17327657594825394-496: The given conditions to which it may be exposed. Chenopodium quinoa is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species. There are non-cultivated quinoa plants ( Chenopodium quinoa var. melanospermum ) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants. Raw, uncooked quinoa
5481-800: The impact on soil and improve biodiversity, such as no-till farming and intercropping . Wheat, barley, rye , and oats were gathered and eaten in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic . Cereal grains 19,000 years old have been found at the Ohalo II site in Israel , with charred remnants of wild wheat and barley. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen. The use of soil conditioners , including manure , fish, compost and ashes , appears to have begun early, and developed independently in areas of
5568-487: The lake was fresh, and the lack of Amaranthaceae taxa strongly indicates droughts which turned the lake into a saltmarsh . Based on the pollen associated with soil manipulation, this is an area of the Andes where domestication of C. quinoa became popular, although it was not the only one. It was domesticated in various geographical zones. With this, morphological adaptations began to happen until having five ecotypes today. Quinoa's genetic diversity illustrates that it
5655-538: The market to economically privileged people in North America, possibly increasing the price of quinoa. Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday. Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of
5742-504: The natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa. Studies have found that smallholder traditional farming of quinoa, specifically in the Andean region of Peru has significantly less of an environmental impact in carbon produced, than the modern industrial quinoa production. World demand for quinoa is sometimes presented in the media particularly as being caused by rising veganism , but one academic has commented that despite
5829-509: The need for irrigation, and by breeding new crop varieties. Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption. For example, to make plain cooked rice , raw milled rice is washed and boiled. Foods such as porridge and muesli may be made largely of whole cereals, especially oats, whereas commercial breakfast cereals such as granola may be highly processed and combined with sugars, oils , and other products. Cereals can be ground to make flour. Wheat flour
5916-481: The plant can be allowed to decompose, or collected as straw ; this can be used for animal bedding, mulch, and a growing medium for mushrooms. It is used in crafts such as building with cob or straw-bale construction . If cereals are not completely dry when harvested, such as when the weather is rainy, the stored grain will be spoilt by mould fungi such as Aspergillus and Penicillium . This can be prevented by drying it artificially. It may then be stored in
6003-476: The plant requires minimal protection. The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative inheritance . Although lowering the saponin content through selective breeding to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% cross-pollination , it is a major goal of quinoa breeding programs , which may include genetic engineering . The toxicity category rating of the saponins in quinoa treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as
6090-465: The plants and seeds are dry enough. Harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by combine harvester , a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then threshes and winnows the grain. In traditional agricultural systems, mostly in the Global South , harvesting may be by hand, using tools such as scythes and grain cradles . Leftover parts of
6177-525: The product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging. However, in December 2013 the Orthodox Union , the world's largest kosher certification agency , announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover. Quinoa is an allotetraploid plant, containing two full sets of chromosomes from two different species which hybridised with each other at one time. According to
6264-477: The production of oats and rye has drastically fallen from their 1960s levels. Other cereals not included in the U.N.'s Food and Agriculture Organization statistics include wild rice , which is grown in small amounts in North America, and teff , an ancient grain that is a staple in Ethiopia . Teff is grown in sub-Saharan Africa as a grass primarily for feeding horses. It is high in fiber and protein. Its flour
6351-467: The removal of the bran and germ, all that remains is the starchy endosperm. In some developing countries , cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance. In developed countries , cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial, primarily in the form of refined and processed grains. Some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine , obliging vegetarian cultures to combine their diet of cereal grains with legumes to obtain
6438-630: The south bank of the Murray at Paringa . Before that line had been completed, the government approved a number of lines from it. These included the Peebinga railway line into the land between the new line and the Pinnaroo line, and lines to Loxton and Waikerie . Finally, the Yinkanie railway line , opened in 1925. All lines have now closed due to the declining use of railways for grain transport in
6525-439: The stalks and seeds have dried out and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%. Handling involves threshing the seedheads from the chaff and winnowing the seed to remove the husk . Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination . This was traditionally done manually, which is labour-intensive. In 2020, world production of quinoa was 175,188 tonnes , led by Peru and Bolivia with 97% of
6612-470: The suggested dates of introduction, one study suggests c. 1000 BC as the introduction date while another suggests 600–1100 AD. In colonial times the plant is known to have been cultivated as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago and the shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake . The cuisine of Chiloé included bread made of Quinoa until at least the mid-19th century. In Chile it had almost disappeared by
6699-404: The temperature goes above around 30 °C or 85 °F. Warm-season cereals, in contrast, require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost. Cool-season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics, where they sometimes deliver several crops in a single year. In the tropics, warm-season cereals can be grown at any time of the year. In temperate zones, these cereals can only be grown when there
6786-459: The total when combined (table). Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and Australasia where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased. Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled. In 2011, the average price was US$ 3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $ 8,000 per tonne. This compares with wheat prices of about US$ 340 per tonne, making wheat about 10% of
6873-550: The value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States. By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries. As a result of expanding production outside the Andean highlands native for quinoa, the price plummeted starting in early 2015 and remained low for years. From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%. Some refer to this as
6960-410: The variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between −4 °C (25 °F) during the night to near 35 °C (95 °F) during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Midsummer frosts during flowering, a frequent occurrence in
7047-658: The world including Mesopotamia , the Nile Valley , and Eastern Asia. Cereals that became modern barley and wheat were domesticated some 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent. Millets and rice were domesticated in East Asia, while sorghum and other millets were domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, primarily as feed for livestock. Maize arose from a single domestication in Mesoamerica about 9,000 years ago. In these agricultural regions, religion
7134-459: Was and is a vital crop. Andean agronomists and nutrition scientists began researching quinoa in the early twentieth century, and it became the subject of much interest among researchers involved in neglected and underutilized crop studies in the 1970s. In 2004, the international community became increasingly interested in quinoa and it entered a boom and bust economic cycle that would last for over ten years. Between 2004 and 2011, quinoa became
7221-471: Was domesticated in East Asia, and sorghum and millet were domesticated in West Africa. Maize was domesticated by Indigenous peoples of the Americas in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. In the 20th century, cereal productivity was greatly increased by the Green Revolution . This increase in production has accompanied a growing international trade , with some countries producing large portions of
7308-646: Was introduced in 1983. In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F) and night temperatures are about 7 °C (45 °F). In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington, and farmers in Western Washington began producing the crop. The Washington State University Skagit River Valley research facility near Mount Vernon grew thousands of its own experimental varieties. The Puget Sound region's climate
7395-761: Was involved in almost every meal of the day. The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the " International Year of Quinoa ", in recognition of the ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security , nutrition and poverty eradication in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals . Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled. The increasing demand for quinoa
7482-674: Was made in China some 9,000 years ago. Cereals and their related byproducts such as hay are routinely fed to farm animals . Common cereals as animal food include maize, barley, wheat, and oats. Moist grains may be treated chemically or made into silage ; mechanically flattened or crimped, and kept in airtight storage until used; or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14%. Commercially, grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets. As whole grains , cereals provide carbohydrates , polyunsaturated fats , protein , vitamins , and minerals . When processed by
7569-496: Was often shaped by the divinity associated with the grain and harvests. In the Mesopotamian creation myth, an era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess Ashnan . The Roman goddess Ceres presided over agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and motherhood; the term cereal is derived from Latin cerealis , "of grain", originally meaning "of [the goddess] Ceres". Several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war:
#481518