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66-457: Built in the twelfth century around 1160, then rebuilt in the seventeenth century, the episcopal palace architecturally is a mix of medieval and Renaissance styles. The most interesting example of eighteenth century work is the south facade of the palace, built of brick and stone, with large cross windows. The north facade is also representative of the Grand Siècle style. The lower rooms of

132-644: A cornice . There is a regular repetition of openings on each floor, and the centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or rusticated surround. An early and much copied prototype was the façade for the Palazzo Rucellai (1446 and 1451) in Florence with its three registers of pilasters . Roman and Greek orders of columns are used: Tuscan , Doric , Ionic , Corinthian and Composite . The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against

198-510: A pediment and organised by a system of pilasters , arches and entablatures . The columns and windows show a progression towards the centre. One of the first true Renaissance façades was Pienza Cathedral (1459–62), which has been attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino ) with Leone Battista Alberti perhaps having some responsibility in its design as well. Domestic buildings are often surmounted by

264-565: A conversation they had about Michelangelo drawings. Perhaps Panofsky didn't care about the whereabouts of his lost work and Heydenreich was not malicious in keeping it a secret ... but questions still remain." Panofsky's academic career in art history took him to the University of Berlin , University of Munich , and finally to University of Hamburg , where he taught from 1920 to 1933. It was during this period that his first major writings on art history began to appear. A significant early work

330-535: A large part of his work. He gave a short and precise description of his method in his article "Iconography and Iconology", published in 1939. In Studies in Iconology Panofsky details his idea of three levels of art-historical understanding: For Panofsky, it was important to consider all three strata as one examines Renaissance art. Irving Lavin says "it was this insistence on, and search for, meaning — especially in places where no one suspected there

396-978: A mathematical order – linear perspective . Erwin Panofsky Erwin Panofsky (March 30, 1892, in Hannover – March 14, 1968, in Princeton, New Jersey ) was a German-Jewish art historian , whose academic career was pursued mostly in the U.S. after the rise of the Nazi regime . His work represents a high point in the modern academic study of iconography , including his hugely influential Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art and his masterpiece Early Netherlandish Painting . Many of his books are still in print, including Studies in Iconology: Humanist Themes in

462-412: A plethora of hidden symbols that all point to the sacrament of marriage. In recent years, this conclusion has been challenged, but Panofsky's work with what he called "hidden" or "disguised" symbolism is still very much influential in the study and understanding of Northern Renaissance art. Similarly, in his monograph on Dürer , Panofsky gives lengthy "symbolic" analyses of the prints Knight, Death, and

528-521: A question of practice, but also a matter for theoretical discussion. Printing played a large role in the dissemination of ideas. In the 15th century the courts of certain other Italian states became centres for spreading of Renaissance philosophy, art and architecture. In Mantua at the court of the Gonzaga , Alberti designed two churches, the Basilica of Sant'Andrea and San Sebastiano . Urbino

594-530: A section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental scale at the Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua . Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular. The barrel vault is returned to architectural vocabulary as at St. Andrea in Mantua. The dome

660-577: A triangular or segmental pediment. Openings that do not have doors are usually arched and frequently have a large or decorative keystone. Windows may be paired and set within a semi-circular arch. They may have square lintels and triangular or segmental pediments , which are often used alternately. Emblematic in this respect is the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, begun in 1517. In the Mannerist period

726-547: A wall in the form of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters , and entablatures as an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) by Brunelleschi. Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be

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792-528: Is the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). During the High Renaissance, concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater confidence. The most representative architect is Donato Bramante (1444–1514), who expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings. His Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio (1503)

858-587: Is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture and neoclassical architecture . Developed first in Florence , with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators,

924-884: Is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally. After the success of the dome in Brunelleschi's design for Florence Cathedral and its use in Bramante's plan for St. Peter's Basilica (1506) in Rome, the dome became an indispensable element in church architecture and later even for secular architecture, such as Palladio's Villa Rotonda . Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are not left open as in Medieval architecture. They are frequently painted or decorated. Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set with in an arch or surmounted by

990-417: Is usually not the case in architectural history. The bleak economic conditions of the late 14th century did not produce buildings that are considered to be part of the Renaissance. As a result, the word Renaissance among architectural historians usually applies to the period 1400 to c.  1525 , or later in the case of non-Italian Renaissances. Historians often use the following designations: During

1056-504: The Florence Baptistery and Pisa Cathedral . Italy had never fully adopted the Gothic style of architecture. Apart from Milan Cathedral , (influenced by French Rayonnant Gothic), few Italian churches show the emphasis on vertical, the clustered shafts, ornate tracery and complex ribbed vaulting that characterise Gothic in other parts of Europe. The presence, particularly in Rome, of ancient architectural remains showing

1122-736: The Loggia and Odeo Cornaro in the garden of Alvise Cornaro . In southern Italy, Renaissance masters were called to Naples by Alfonso V of Aragon after his conquest of the Kingdom of Naples . The most notable examples of Renaissance architecture in that city are the Cappella Caracciolo , attributed to Bramante, and the Palazzo Orsini di Gravina , built by Gabriele d'Angelo between 1513 and 1549. The Classical orders were analysed and reconstructed to serve new purposes. While

1188-614: The Palazzo Medici Riccardi (1444–1460) in Florence. Internal walls are smoothly plastered and surfaced with lime wash . For more formal spaces, internal surfaces are decorated with frescoes . Courses, mouldings and all decorative details are carved with great precision. Studying and mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance theory. The different orders each required different sets of details. Some architects were stricter in their use of classical details than others, but there

1254-621: The Palladian arch was employed, using a motif of a high semi-circular topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows are used to bring light into the building and in domestic architecture, to give views. Stained glass, although sometimes present, is not a feature. External walls are generally constructed of brick, rendered, or faced with stone in highly finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The corners of buildings are often emphasized by rusticated quoins . Basements and ground floors were often rusticated , as at

1320-697: The Quattrocento, sometimes known as the Early Renaissance, concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated. The study of classical antiquity led in particular to the adoption of Classical detail and ornamentation. Space, as an element of architecture, was used differently than it was in the Middle Ages . Space was organised by proportional logic, its form and rhythm subject to geometry, rather than being created by intuition as in Medieval buildings. The prime example of this

1386-576: The Sforza , the Castello Sforzesco was built. Venetian Renaissance architecture developed a particularly distinctive character because of local conditions. San Zaccaria received its Renaissance façade at the hands of Antonio Gambello and Mauro Codussi , begun in the 1480s. Giovanni Maria Falconetto , the Veronese architect-sculptor, introduced Renaissance architecture to Padua with

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1452-464: The 15th century. Conversely, there was no call for enormous sporting fixtures and public bath houses such as the Romans had built. The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module. Within a church, the module is often the width of an aisle. The need to integrate the design of the plan with the façade was introduced as an issue in

1518-590: The Art of the Renaissance (1939), Meaning in the Visual Arts (1955), and his 1943 study The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer . Panofsky's ideas were highly influential in intellectual history in general, particularly in his use of historical ideas to interpret artworks and vice versa. Panofsky was born in Hannover to a wealthy Jewish Silesian mining family. He grew up in Berlin, receiving his Abitur in 1910 at

1584-490: The Devil and Melencolia I , the former based on Erasmus 's Handbook of a Christian Knight . Panofsky was known to be a friend with physicists Wolfgang Pauli and Albert Einstein . His younger son, Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky , became a renowned physicist who specialized in particle accelerators . His elder son, Hans A. Panofsky, was "an atmospheric scientist who taught at Pennsylvania State University for 30 years and who

1650-732: The Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium. In 1910–14 he studied law, philosophy, philology, and art history in Freiburg, Munich, and Berlin, where he heard lectures by the art historian Margarete Bieber , who was filling in for Georg Loeschcke . While Panofsky was taking courses at Freiburg University , a slightly older student, Kurt Badt , took him to hear a lecture by the founder of the art history department, Wilhelm Vöge , under whom he wrote his dissertation in 1914. His topic, Dürer's artistic theory Dürers Kunsttheorie: vornehmlich in ihrem Verhältnis zur Kunsttheorie der Italiener

1716-477: The Mannerist style was Michelangelo (1475–1564), who frequently used the giant order in his architecture, a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade. He used this in his design for the Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. Prior to the 20th century, the term Mannerism had negative connotations, but it is now used to describe the historical period in more general non-judgemental terms. As

1782-783: The Motion Pictures ( text online ), Panofsky seeks to describe the visual symptoms endemic" to the medium of film. In 2016, the Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte (Central Institute for Art History) in Munich founded the Panofsky-Professur (Panofsky Professorship). The first Panofsky Professors have been Victor Stoichita (2016), Gauvin Alexander Bailey (2017), Caroline van Eck (2018), and Olivier Bonfait (2019). His work has greatly influenced

1848-483: The Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact. Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry , proportion , geometry and the regularity of parts, as demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture , of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns , pilasters and lintels , as well as

1914-403: The Renaissance view of architecture is Filippo Brunelleschi, (1377–1446). The underlying feature of the work of Brunelleschi was "order". In the early 15th century, Brunelleschi began to look at the world to see what the rules were that governed one's way of seeing. He observed that the way one sees regular structures such as the Florence Baptistery and the tiled pavement surrounding it follows

1980-617: The building are clearly Florentine in style, particularly the inner courtyard, but it is not known who the designer was. Ferrara , under the Este , was expanded in the late 15th century, with several new palaces being built such as the Palazzo dei Diamanti and Palazzo Schifanoia for Borso d'Este . In Milan , under the Visconti , the Certosa di Pavia was completed, and then later under

2046-512: The church, but by guilds representing the wealth and power of the city. Brunelleschi's dome at Florence Cathedral, more than any other building, belonged to the populace because the construction of each of the eight segments was achieved by a different quarter of the city. As in the Platonic Academy of Athens , it was seen by those of Humanist understanding that those people who had the benefit of wealth and education ought to promote

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2112-455: The early Renaissance, Venice controlled sea trade over goods from the East. The large towns of Northern Italy were prosperous through trade with the rest of Europe, Genoa providing a seaport for the goods of France and Spain; Milan and Turin being centres of overland trade, and maintaining substantial metalworking industries. Trade brought wool from England to Florence, ideally located on

2178-770: The enormous Florence Cathedral dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary did no honour to the city under her patronage. However, as the technology and finance were found to complete it, the rising dome did credit not only to the Virgin Mary, its architect and the Church but also to the Signoria , the Guilds and the sectors of the city from which the manpower to construct it was drawn. The dome inspired further religious works in Florence. The development of printed books,

2244-432: The interpretation of Christian art , that Panofsky researched throughout his life, the iconographic interest in texts as possible sources remains important, because the meaning of Christian images and architecture is closely linked to the content of biblical , liturgical and theological texts, which were usually considered authoritative by most patrons, artists and viewers. In his 1936 essay " Style and Medium in

2310-436: The lectures later became Early Netherlandish Painting . He became particularly well known for his studies of symbols and iconography in art. First in a 1934 article, then in his Early Netherlandish Painting (1953), Panofsky was the first to interpret Jan van Eyck 's Arnolfini Portrait (1934) as not only a depiction of a wedding ceremony, but also a visual contract testifying to the act of marriage. Panofsky identifies

2376-559: The mid 15th century and gained momentum in the 16th century, reaching its peak in the Baroque period. The construction of the Sistine Chapel with its uniquely important decorations and the entire rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica , one of Christendom's most significant churches, were part of this process. In the wealthy Republic of Florence , the impetus for church-building was more civic than spiritual. The unfinished state of

2442-408: The name of the great prelate in 1911, when it was opened to the public as a city park. On crossing it one reaches the study of Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet. The episcopal palace houses collections of paintings and sculptures, as well as items of local history. The collections have expanded thanks to the legacy of the chemist and collector Henri Moissan in 1914 and, more recently, thanks to the donation of

2508-610: The neuro-biologist Jean-Pierre Changeux . He enriched the museum with forty works, the last of which entered the collection in 2006. Different schools of painting are shown from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries. There are many pictures of the successive Bishops of Meaux along the access ramp. The memory of Bishop Bossuet of Meaux (1682-1704) is evoked by his portraits by Hyacinthe Rigaud and after Pierre Mignard gathered in his old study. Citations Sources Renaissance architecture Renaissance architecture

2574-509: The new style of architecture spread out from Italy, most other European countries developed a sort of Proto-Renaissance style, before the construction of fully formulated Renaissance buildings. Each country in turn then grafted its own architectural traditions to the new style, so that Renaissance buildings across Europe are diversified by region. Within Italy the evolution of Renaissance architecture into Mannerism, with widely diverging tendencies in

2640-413: The obvious distinguishing features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by Renaissance architects, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of cities. Among the earliest buildings of the reborn Classicism were the type of churches that the Romans had never constructed. Neither were there models for the type of large city dwellings required by wealthy merchants of

2706-508: The ordered Classical style provided an inspiration to artists at a time when philosophy was also turning towards the Classical. In the 15th century, Florence and Venice extended their power through much of the area that surrounded them, making the movement of artists possible. This enabled Florence to have significant artistic influence in Milan , and through Milan, France . In 1377,

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2772-469: The palace are the oldest, dating from the second half of the twelfth century. The low and high chapels also date from this time, but were expanded and redesigned in the fifteenth century. The Bossuet garden is beside the episcopal palace. It is a formal garden in the French style with the shape of a miter. The garden was created in the seventeenth century during the episcopate of Dominique Séguier . It took

2838-641: The promotion of civil peace and order were seen as the marks of citizenship. This led to the building of structures such as Brunelleschi's Hospital of the Innocents with its elegant colonnade forming a link between the charitable building and the public square, and the Laurentian Library where the collection of books established by the Medici family could be consulted by scholars. Some major ecclesiastical building works were also commissioned, not by

2904-626: The pursuit of learning and the creation of that which was beautiful. To this end, wealthy families—the Medici of Florence, the Gonzaga of Mantua, the Farnese in Rome, the Sforzas in Milan—gathered around them people of learning and ability, promoting the skills and creating employment for the most talented artists and architects of their day. During the Renaissance, architecture became not only

2970-590: The rediscovery of ancient writings, the expanding of political and trade contacts and the exploration of the world all increased knowledge and the desire for education. The reading of philosophies that were not based on Christian theology led to the development of humanism through which it was clear that while God had established and maintained order in the Universe, it was the role of Man to establish and maintain order in Society. Through humanism, civic pride and

3036-883: The rest of his career. Panofsky was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Philosophical Society , the British Academy and a number of other national academies. In 1954 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1962 he received the Haskins Medal of The Medieval Academy of America . In 1947–1948 Panofsky was the Charles Eliot Norton professor at Harvard University ;

3102-673: The return of the Pope from the Avignon Papacy and the re-establishment of the Papal court in Rome, brought wealth and importance to that city, as well as a renewal in the importance of the Pope in Italy, which was further strengthened by the Council of Constance in 1417. Successive Popes, especially Julius II , 1503–13, sought to extend the Papacy's temporal power throughout Italy. In

3168-591: The revival of interest in this period. Erwin Panofsky , Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art , (New York: Harper and Row, 1960) The Renaissance style was recognized by contemporaries in the term "all'antica" , or "in the ancient manner" (of the Romans). Historians often divide the Renaissance in Italy into three phases. Whereas art historians might talk of an Early Renaissance period, in which they include developments in 14th-century painting and sculpture, this

3234-535: The river for the production of fine cloth, the industry on which its wealth was founded. By dominating Pisa , Florence gained a seaport, and became the most powerful state in Tuscany. In this commercial climate, one family in particular turned their attention from trade to the lucrative business of money-lending. The Medici became the chief bankers to the princes of Europe, becoming virtually princes themselves as they did so, by reason of both wealth and influence. Along

3300-621: The subject as "the most influential art historian of the twentieth century". In 1999, the new "Panofsky Lane", in that Institute's faculty housing complex, was named in his honor. Panofsky was the most eminent representative of iconology , a method of studying the history of art created by Aby Warburg and his disciples, especially Fritz Saxl , at the Warburg Institute in Hamburg. A personal and professional friendship linked him to Fritz Saxl in collaboration with whom he produced

3366-553: The trade routes, and thus offered some protection by commercial interest, moved not only goods but also artists, scientists and philosophers. The return of the Pope Gregory XI from Avignon in September 1377 and the resultant new emphasis on Rome as the center of Christian spirituality, brought about a surge in the building of churches in Rome such as had not taken place for nearly a thousand years. This commenced in

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3432-538: The use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes , niches and aediculae replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings. The word "Renaissance" derives from the term rinascita , which means rebirth, first appeared in Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects , 1550. Although the term Renaissance

3498-444: The work of Filippo Brunelleschi , but he was never able to carry this aspect of his work into fruition. The first building to demonstrate this was Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua by Leone Battista Alberti . The development of the plan in secular architecture was to take place in the 16th century and culminated with the work of Palladio . Façades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. Church façades are generally surmounted by

3564-421: The work of Michelangelo , Giulio Romano and Andrea Palladio , led to the Baroque style in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. Outside Italy, Baroque architecture was more widespread and fully developed than the Renaissance style, with significant buildings as far afield as Mexico and the Philippines . Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular,

3630-416: Was Idea: Ein Beitrag zur Begriffsgeschichte der älteren Kunstheorie (1924; translated into English as Idea: A Concept in Art Theory ), based on the ideas of Ernst Cassirer . Panofsky first came to the United States in 1931 to teach at New York University . Although initially allowed to spend alternate terms in Hamburg and New York City, after the Nazis came to power in Germany his appointment in Hamburg

3696-497: Was also a good deal of innovation in solving problems, especially at corners. Mouldings stand out around doors and windows rather than being recessed, as in Gothic architecture. Sculptured figures may be set in niches or placed on plinths. They are not integral to the building as in Medieval architecture. The leading architects of the Early Renaissance or Quattrocento were Filippo Brunelleschi , Michelozzo and Leon Battista Alberti . The person generally credited with bringing about

3762-407: Was an important centre with the Ducal Palace being constructed for Federico da Montefeltro in the mid 15th century. The Duke employed Luciano Laurana from Dalmatia , renowned for his expertise at fortification. The design incorporates much of the earlier medieval building and includes an unusual turreted three-storeyed façade. Laurana was assisted by Francesco di Giorgio Martini. Later parts of

3828-469: Was any — that led Panofsky to understand art, as no previous historian had, as an intellectual endeavor on a par with the traditional liberal arts." The method of iconology , which had developed following Erwin Panofsky, has been critically discussed since the mid-1950s, in part also strongly ( Otto Pächt , Svetlana Alpers ). However, among the critics, no one has found a model of interpretation that could completely replace that of Panofsky. As regards

3894-483: Was credited with several advances in the study of meteorology ". As Wolfgang Panofsky related, his father used to call his sons "meine beiden Klempner" ("my two plumbers"). William S. Heckscher was a student, fellow emigre, and close friend. In 1973 he was succeeded at Princeton by Irving Lavin . Erwin Panofsky has been recognized as both a "highly distinguished" professor at the Institute for Advanced Study , Princeton, New Jersey , and in Jeffrey Chipps' biography of

3960-448: Was directly inspired by circular Roman temples . He was, however, hardly a slave to the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century. During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with

4026-418: Was found in August 2012 by art historian Stephan Klingen in an old Nazi safe in Munich's Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte . It had long been assumed that this manuscript was lost in 1943/44 in Hamburg , as this important study was never published and the art historian's widow was unable to locate it in Hamburg. It seems as if art historian Ludwig Heinrich Heydenreich , who had studied under Panofsky,

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4092-658: Was home to the Renaissance. It is in Florence that the new architectural style had its beginning, not slowly evolving in the way that Gothic grew out of Romanesque , but consciously brought to being by particular architects who sought to revive the order of a past " Golden Age ". The scholarly approach to the architecture of the ancient coincided with the general revival of learning. A number of factors were influential in bringing this about. Italian architects had always preferred forms that were clearly defined and structural members that expressed their purpose. Many Tuscan Romanesque buildings demonstrate these characteristics, as seen in

4158-516: Was in the possession of this manuscript from 1946 to 1970. In the Süddeutsche Zeitung , Willibald Sauerländer shed some light on the question of whether Heydenreich shared his recovery of the manuscript or not: "Panofsky has historically distanced himself from his early writings on Michelangelo, as he tired of the subject, and," according to Sauerländer "developed a professional conflict with Austro-Hungarian art historian Johannes Wilde , who accused Panofsky of not crediting him with ideas gleaned from

4224-596: Was published the following year in Berlin as Die Theoretische Kunstlehre Albrecht Dürers . Because of a horse-riding accident, Panofsky was exempted from military service during World War I , using the time to attend the seminars of the medievalist Adolph Goldschmidt in Berlin. The original 1920 manuscript of Panofsky's Habilitationsschrift , his second dissertation, which is titled Die Gestaltungsprinzipien Michelangelos, besonders in ihrem Verhältnis zu denen Raffaels ("The Composition Principles of Michelangelo , particularly in their relation to those of Raphael "),

4290-447: Was terminated because he was Jewish , and he remained permanently in the United States with his art historian wife (since 1916), Dorothea "Dora" Mosse (1885–1965). He and his wife became part of the Kahler-Kreis . By 1934 he was teaching concurrently at New York University and Princeton University , and in 1935 he was invited to join the faculty of the new Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey , where he remained for

4356-545: Was used first by the French historian Jules Michelet , it was given its more lasting definition from the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt , whose book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy , 1860, was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance . The folio of measured drawings Édifices de Rome moderne; ou, Recueil des palais, maisons, églises, couvents et autres monuments (The Buildings of Modern Rome), first published in 1840 by Paul Letarouilly, also played an important part in

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