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108-603: Mustang District ( Nepali : मुस्ताङ जिल्ला Listen ) (from the Tibetan möntang ( Wylie : smon-thang ), "fertile plain") is one of the eleven districts of Gandaki Province and one of seventy-seven districts of Nepal which was a Kingdom of Lo-Manthang that joined the Federation of Nepal in 2008 after abolition of the Shah dynasty . The district covers an area of 3,573 km (1,380 sq mi) and in 2011 had

216-462: A Village Development Committee with 876 people living in 178 households, is the capital of the old kingdom of Lo, which encompasses the northern two thirds of the district and known as Upper Mustang . Though the capital of the district is Jomsom , the traditional Tibetan-style locales lie north of Kagbeni . The old capital Lo Manthang, a square-walled town on the Plain of Prayers , is the residence of

324-407: A government institution established in 1913 ( B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known as Sajha Prakashan . Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former national anthem entitled " Shriman Gambhir " was changed to Nepali in 1951. However, the term Nepali

432-485: A border agreement, setting the border between Mustang and Tibet Autonomous Region set slightly north of the traditional boundary marker demarcated by a stupa at 29°18′14″N 83°58′7″E  /  29.30389°N 83.96861°E  / 29.30389; 83.96861 . Up until 2008, the Kingdom of Lo or Upper Mustang was an ethnic Tibetan kingdom and a suzerainty of Kingdom of Nepal . The suzerainty allowed for

540-521: A certain level of independence in local governance from the Nepalese central government. Though still recognised by many Mustang residents, the monarchy ceased to exist on 7 October 2008, by order of the Government of Nepal. After the civil war that overthrew the Nepalese monarchy, it became a republic. Mustang became another district of Nepal losing its status of a tributary kingdom it enjoyed since

648-471: A close connect, subsequently, the language became the lingua franca in the area. As a result, the grammar became simplified, vocabulary was expanded, and its phonology was softened, after it was syncretised, Nepali lost much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. In the Kathmandu Valley (then known as Nepal Mandala ), Nepali language inscriptions can be seen during

756-539: A cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen BSk ). Jomsom is the starting point of the scenic trekking routes in Upper Mustang and Manang . The diverse landscape and culture found along this trekking route give marvellous insight into the way of life of Nepali people of various ethnic groups. The highlight is a trek through the deepest gorge in the world carved by the Kali Gandaki River, which originates in

864-536: A population of 13,452. The headquarters is located at Jomsom . Mustang is the fifth largest district of Nepal in terms of area. The district is home to Muktinath Temple ('lord of liberation or moksha ') and is a sacred place for Hindus and Buddhists . The district is a part of Gandaki Province in northern Nepal , straddles the Himalayas and extends northward onto the Tibetan Plateau . The district

972-649: A short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fuelled by Adhyatma Ramayana ; Sundarananda Bara (1833); Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk tales; and a version of the ancient Indian epic Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya (d. 1868). The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal , Laxmi Prasad Devkota , and Balkrishna Sama took Nepali to the level of other world languages. The contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India,

1080-593: A standardised prose in the Lal mohar (royal charter)—documents related to the Nepalese Kingdom dealing with diplomatic writings, tax, and administrative records. The language of the Lal mohar is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography. Few changes including changing Kari (करि) to Gari (गरि) and merging Hunu (हुनु) with cha (छ) to create huncha (हुन्छ) were done. The most prominent work written during this time

1188-418: Is Kagbeni, at the confluence of Muktinath or Dzong (Jhong) River and Kali Gandaki River. Kagbeni is on the well-traveled route to the pilgrimage site of Muktinath. Tibetan dialect (Pheke) prevails here, though the people of Tangbe, Chhusang, Tetang, Tsaile and Ghyaker also speak Seke, a language closely related to Thakali. The Muktinath temple is located at an altitude of 3,710 meters near Ranipauwa village at

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1296-698: Is Naya Pul on the Pokhara to Baglung road and from there, via Ghorepani and Tatopani, into the gorge of the Kali Gandaki. The deep valleys and high mountains encircling the giant Annapurna Himal embrace a wide range of peoples and terrain, from sub-tropical jungle to a high, dry landscape resembling the Tibetan Plateau. A modern FM radio broadcasting station was built in Jomsom in September, 2013. It

1404-544: Is a drawback in summertime as the houses grow very hot due to a lack of appropriate ventilation. Hence, people often sleep on the terraces during the summer to escape the heat. The Lopa are primarily farmers, shepherds, or merchants. Tibet traditionally traded with Lopas, but in mid-18th century salt-trade monopoly was awarded to the Thakali people to the south, stripping the Lopa of much income. In 1959, Tibetans started crossing

1512-677: Is a part of the Tibetan highlands. This boot-shaped piece of land thrusts north into western Tibet is caught in the rain shadow of Dhaulagiri to the south and west and the Annapurna Massif to the north and east. Average elevation of Mustang is 13,200 ft (4,023m), coming to a peak at 8,167m — the summit of Dhaulagiri. It is a vast and arid valley, distinguished by eroded canyons, vividly coloured stratified rock formations and barren high-altitude deserts. The area receives an average annual rainfall of less than 260 mm at Jomsom in

1620-469: Is a place where the great sage Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava) who brought Buddhism to Tibet, came to meditate. The area around Jomsom is a perfect place to find fossilised ammonites, known locally as Shaligram , which are found all along the upper reaches of the Kali Gandaki. Most of the route along the Jomsom trek forms part of the Annapurna circuit and Annapurna foothill treks. The usual starting point

1728-572: Is a popular area for trekking and can be visited year round (regardless of season). Agriculture and animal husbandry are the main occupations. The entire district is included within the Annapurna Conservation Area , the largest protected area of Nepal. Development programmes, tourism management, and so on are primarily overseen by the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), a division of

1836-399: Is a rich combination of Hinduism and Tibetan Buddhism . The layout of the town and the design of the houses are unique to this area. The houses in Jomsom are designed to protect the inhabitants from the strong winds that blow up the valley every day from late morning onwards. These winds are caused by differences in atmospheric pressure between the Tibetan plateau and the lower reaches of

1944-405: Is also a separate highest level honorific, which was used to refer to members of the royal family, and by the royals among themselves. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Instead, it relies heavily on periphrasis , a marginal verbal feature of older Indo-Aryan languages. Nepali

2052-567: Is also known as the cultural capital of this area. The palace and other structures within the wall were built by Ame Pal, the first king of Lo, during the period of the 15th century. His lineage is recognised as the royal family of Mustang. Lo Tsho Dyun area consists of Ghiling, Ghemi, Dhakmar, Marang, Tsarang, Dhi, Surkhang, Yara, Ghara, Tangya, Dhea, Lo Monthang, Nhenyol, Chhoser, Nyamdo, Kimaling, Thinkar, Phuwa and Namgyal villages. They were spread across six VDCs: Dhami , Charang , Lo Manthang , Chhoser , Chhonhup and Surkhang . Lo Manthang ,

2160-671: Is also notable. Nepali-language speakers are rapidly migrating around the globe in last a couple of decades and many books of Nepali language literature are published from different corners of the world. Diasporic literature has developed new ways of thinking and created a new branch in Nepali language literature. Dialects of Nepali include Acchami, Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali, Bheri, Dadeldhuri, Dailekhi, Darchulali, Darchuli, Gandakeli, Humli, Purbeli, and Soradi. These dialects can be distinct from Standard Nepali. Mutual intelligibility between Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Humli and Acchami

2268-478: Is also one of the 51 Shakta pithas . The Buddhists call it Chumig Gyatsa , which in Tibetan means "Hundred Waters". Although the temple has a Vaishnav origin, it is also revered in Buddhism. For Tibetan Buddhists, Muktinath is a very important place of dakinis , goddesses known as Sky Dancers, and one of the 24 Tantric places. They understand the murti to be a manifestation of Avalokiteśvara , who embodies

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2376-630: Is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Himalayas region of South Asia . It is the official, and most widely spoken, language of Nepal , where it also serves as a lingua franca . Nepali has official status in the Indian state of Sikkim and in the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration of West Bengal . It is spoken by about a quarter of Bhutan 's population. Nepali also has a significant number of speakers in

2484-550: Is becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish between areas along social lines as different castes and ethnic people started to live all over the region. Along the Kali Gandaki River in Lower Mustang, the Thakali are the dominant ethnic group. The area, extending from Ghasa in south to district headquarter Jomsom in the north, is known as Thak Khola ("Thak River"). The area was ruled by a Tibetan ruler till 1786, when it

2592-627: Is believed to have originated around 500 years ago with the mass migration of a branch of Khas people from the Karnali - Bheri - Seti eastward to settle in lower valleys of the Karnali and the Gandaki basin. During the times of Sena dynasty , who ruled a vast area in Terai and central hills of Nepal, Nepali language became influenced by the Indian languages including Awadhi , Bhojpuri , Braj Bhasha and Maithili . Nepali speakers and Senas had

2700-832: Is comparatively well studied and documented, only limited information is available on biodiversity of Lower Mustang. Mustang is rich in trans-Himalayan biodiversity, where five species of zooplankton, seven nematode species, two mollusc species, one annelid species, 25 insect species (seven aquatic insects and 18 butterfly species), one spider species, 11 amphibian species, eight lizard species, five snake species, 105 bird species and 29 mammal species have been recorded. Five butterfly species, extinct mollusc species ( shaligram ), two frog species, one reptile species, two bird species ( Tibetan sandgrouse and Eurasian eagle-owl ), and seven mammal species have only been recorded in Mustang in Nepal. Out of

2808-519: Is dominated by Juniperus squamata on gentle slopes, whereas steeper slopes are dominated by Caragana gerardiana , Chrysosphaerella brevispina , and Rosa sericea , as well various species of Ephedra and Lonicera . Vegetation above 5,000 metres consists mainly of Rhododendron anthopogon , as well as Potentilla biflora and various species of Saxifraga . Little or no vegetation is found above 5,800 metres. Forest covers 3.24 per cent of Mustang's total landmass. Forest cover ends near Jomsom and

2916-454: Is equipped with one radio studio, one main control room and the transmission tower along with a community centre and camping site for Annapurna trekkers. The station was built, following a contribution from a major Korean broadcaster, MBC , Lafuma and KOICA , for the wellbeing and safety of both residents and trekkers of Mustang. The town was only slightly affected by the major earthquake of 25 April 2015 . However, around 15–20 buildings along

3024-499: Is flanked by the Nepalese districts of Manang , the least populated, to the east and Dolpa , the third least populated, to the west. The Tibetan frontier stretches north from Mustang's borders. Mustang is divided into two sub-regions, Lower and Upper. This is a high-altitude trans-Himalayan region spread over 3,640 square kilometres in area barely north of the main Himalayan mountain range. Geographically this cold high-altitude steppe

3132-719: Is generally written in Devanagari script. In certain regions, the Tibetan script was also used in regions with predominantly Tibetic population, with common Tibetan expressions and pronunciation. In the section below Nepali is represented in Latin transliteration using the IAST scheme and IPA . The chief features are: subscript dots for retroflex consonants ; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels ; h denoting aspirated plosives . Tildes denote nasalised vowels . Nepali developed significant literature within

3240-561: Is home to Tamang people , the largest group of Thakalis in Mustang, who are known to outsiders as just Thakkalis. The Thakkalis of Mustang, known for their enterprising skills as traders, innkeepers and hoteliers, are divided into four clans: Khuki (Bhattachan), Choki (Gauchan), Dinjen (Sherchan) and Salki (Tulachan). The introduction of horticulture and tourism has made this region prosperous. Various kinds of liquor, Jam and Jelly made up of apple, apricot and plum are very popular commodities of this area. Panchgaon ("five villages") lies between

3348-603: Is low. The dialect of the Nepali language spoken in Karnali Province is not mutually intelligible with Standard Nepali. The language is known by its old name as Khas Bhasa in Karnali. The following is a sample text in Nepali, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , with a transliteration (IAST) and transcription ( IPA ). Jomsom As the district headquarters, Jomsom

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3456-603: Is not suitable for agriculture at all. However, there are a number of small streams, where willows grow along with wheat, potatoes and barley. The most famous festival here is Tiji , which generally happens in April/May, with costumed lamas dancing in the village square for three days. Lo Manthang is the socio-cultural and political center of the ethnic Lopa people, the original inhabitants of Mustang. Their mud-brick homes are much like Tibetan homes, whitewashed outside and decorated inside. They build their homes out of stone, making

3564-824: Is often in free variation with [õ]. Nepali has ten diphthongs : /ui̯/, /iu̯/, /ei̯/, /eu̯/, /oi̯/, /ou̯/, /ʌi̯/, /ʌu̯/, /ai̯/, and /au̯/. [j] and [w] are nonsyllabic allophones of [i] and [u], respectively. Every consonant except [j], [w], and /ɦ/ has a geminate counterpart between vowels. /ɳ/ and /ʃ/ also exist in some loanwords such as /baɳ/ बाण "arrow" and /nareʃ/ नरेश "king", but these sounds are sometimes replaced with native Nepali phonemes. The murmured stops may lose their breathy-voice between vowels and word-finally. Non-geminate aspirated and murmured stops may also become fricatives, with /pʰ/ as [ ɸ ], /bʱ/ as [ β ], /kʰ/ as [ x ], and /ɡʱ/ as [ ɣ ]. Examples of this are /sʌpʰa/ 'clean' becoming [sʌɸa] and /ʌɡʱaɖi/ 'before' becoming [ʌɣaɽi]. Typically, sounds transcribed with

3672-516: Is one of the remotest areas in Nepal and is second in terms of the sparsity of population. The elevation ranges from 1,372 to 8,167 meters (Mount Dhaulagiri , the 7th highest mountain in the world), with several peaks above 7,000 meters. Mustang was an ancient forbidden kingdom, bordered by the Tibetan Plateau and sheltered by some of world's tallest peaks, including 8000-meter tall Annapurna and Dhaulagiri . Strict regulations of tourists here have aided in maintaining Tibetan traditions. Upper Mustang

3780-482: Is primarily an administrative and commercial centre with government officials and merchants rubbing shoulders with the local residents of the region, known as Thakalis . The town is also the main hub for onward travel to Upper Mustang and Muktinath . A company of the Nepalese Army is stationed here. Regular flights to Pokhara are operated from Jomsom Airport , which is also capable of handling aircraft from

3888-796: Is sometimes called Glo Bosmad ("Lower Lo"), as it shares many geographical features of Lo proper, with some parts falling inside Upper Mustang. The people who live are not categorised as Thakali. They are known to outsider as Bhotia ("Tibetan") or Baragaonle ("People of Baragaon") and they share cultural similarities with Lo, though they often use Gurung, Bista or Thakuri as their surname for purposes of status emulation. This sub-region now consists of 19 main villages — Kagbeni, Khinga, Dakardzong, Jharkot , Muktinath, Chongur , Jhong, Putak, Purong, Lubra, Pagling, Phalek, Tiri, Chhusang, Tetang, Tangbe , Tsele, Ghyaga and Sammar. These villages were spread across four VDCs south of Lochhoden: Kagbeni , Muktinath , Jhong and Chhusang . The central town of Baragaon

3996-466: Is the official language of the state of Sikkim and of Gorkhaland , West Bengal . Despite being spoken by about a quarter of the population, Nepalese has no official status in Bhutan. According to the 2011 national census , 44.6% of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as its first language . and 32.8% speak Nepali as a second language. Ethnologue reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal (from

4104-538: Is the second most commonly spoken language other than English. Allawah and Hurstville have third most Nepali speaking population in New South Wales . There are regular Nepali language News papers and Magazines in Australia. Vowels and consonants are outlined in the tables below. Nepali distinguishes six oral vowels and five nasal vowels . /o/ does not have a phonemic nasal counterpart, although it

4212-452: Is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. Around 1830, several Nepali poets wrote on themes from

4320-867: Is very limited in Upper Mustang, which falls in the Alpine climatic area. It is distributed over one small patch each in Lo Manthang and Dhami VDCs, and seven patches in Chhuksang VDC. The vegetation of the district can be categorised into some eight types, including six types of mixed forest identified by the dominant species — Pinus wallichiana , Betula utilis , Hippophae salicifolia , Caragana gerardiana , Lonicera spinosa and Caragana gerardiana , Juniperus — and grasslands/rangelands covered with Poaceae . Lower Mustang offers mixed broad leaved forest such as Acer species, conifers (mainly pine) and rhododendrons (Nepali: लालीगुँरास), and at

4428-470: The 1951 Nepalese revolution and during the Panchayat system. In 1957, Royal Nepal Academy was established with the objectives of developing and promoting Nepali literature, culture, art and science. During Panchayat, Nepal adopted a " One King, One Dress, One Language, One Nation " ideology, which promoted Nepali language as basis for Nepali nationalism, this time is considered to be a Golden Age for

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4536-399: The Annapurna mountain range and on the other side is Dhaulagiri. The river freezes during winter and flows with rainwater and melting snow in summer and monsoon. With its diverse landscape, the area around Jomsom has the scenery of rocky cliffs and high peaks of the Himalayas without much presence of greenery, with the exception being forests of bright rhododendrons . The culture in Jomsom

4644-563: The Himalayan region of South Asia . The earliest inscription in the Nepali language is believed to be an inscription in Dullu , Dailekh District which was written around the reign of King Bhupal Damupal around the year 981. The institutionalisation of the Nepali language arose during the rule of the Kingdom of Gorkha (later became known as the Kingdom of Nepal ) in the 16th century. Over

4752-657: The Khasa Kingdom in the western Nepal . Following the Unification of Nepal led by Shah dynasty 's Prithvi Narayan Shah , Nepali language became known as Gorakhā Bhāṣā ( गोरखा भाषा ; language of the Gorkhas ) as it was spoken by Gorkhas . The people living in the Pahad or the hilly region, where it does not generally contain snow, called the language Parvate Kurā ( पर्वते कुरा ), meaning "the speech of

4860-574: The National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC). The kingdom of Mustang was a dependency of the Kingdom of Nepal since 1795, but was abolished by the republican Government of Nepal on 7 October 2008, after Nepal became a federal democratic republic. According to the Human Development Index , Mustang is a relatively wealthy district with a GDP per capita of US$ 2,466. Mustang, the second least populated district of Nepal,

4968-478: The Nepalese Army Air Service . Jomsom lies to the north of Pokhara in Mustang district, and is the main gateway to Upper Mustang. It lies to south of the village of Kagbeni , a Tibetan-influenced village filled with prayer wheels, chortens and a Buddhist monastery. The trail passing through Jomsom follows the Kali Gandaki River which forms the deepest ravine in the world ; on one side lies

5076-702: The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana , which was followed by Bhanubhakta Acharya translating the Ramayana in Nepali which received "great popularity for the colloquial flavour of its language, its religious sincerity, and its realistic natural descriptions". The term Nepali derived from Nepal was officially adopted by the Government of Nepal in 1933, when Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee),

5184-406: The Shah dynasty , unified what was a land of many small kingdoms to forge the kingdom of Nepal. Before that much of present-day Mustang was ruled by kings from Jumla , a region to the southwest, and independent kings and feudal lords. At the end of the 18th century, the kingdom was annexed by Nepal and became a dependency of the Kingdom of Nepal since 1795. Swedish explorer Sven Hedin 's visited

5292-533: The "God house"; Thubchen Gompa, a huge, red assembly hall and gompa built in the late 15th century and located just southwest of Jampa Gompa; Chodey Gompa, now the main city gompa; and the Choprang Gompa, which is popularly known as the "New Gompa". It is noted by scholars as one of the best preserved medieval fortresses and a candidate for UNESCO World Heritage status. The windswept and arid land around Lo Manthang, located at an altitude between 3000m and 3500m,

5400-460: The 13th century, and also contain Tibetan scripts executed in ink, silver and gold and pre- Christian era pottery shards. Explorers found stupas , decorative art and paintings depicting various forms of the Buddha , often with disciples, supplicants and attendants, with some mural paintings showing sub-tropical themes containing palm trees , billowing Indian textiles and birds. Mustang District

5508-497: The 13th century. In 2008, a number of 600-year-old human skeletons were discovered by a second expedition. They also recovered reams of invaluable manuscripts containing writings from both the Bon religion and Buddhism , some of which were illuminated . Research groups have continue to investigate these caves, as it is not clear who built the caves and why were they built. According to theory, they may date back to 8–10,000 BCE when Mustang

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5616-469: The 18 butterfly species recorded in Mustang, two are new and three are endemic to the area. Mustang is the habitat for snow leopard , musk deer , Tibetan wild ass and Tibetan gazelle . The only native fish species, recorded at 3475m above sea level at Ghami Khola stream in Dhami , has been identified as the highest elevation fish in Nepal. Six of the mammal species recorded from Mustang area are protected by

5724-540: The 18th century, where it became the state language. One of the earliest works in the Middile Nepali is written during the reign of Ram Shah , King of Gorkha, a book by unknown writer called Ram Shah ko Jivani (A Biography of Ram Shah). Prithvi Narayan Shah 's Divyopadesh , written toward the end of his life, around 1774–75, contains old Nepali dialect of the era, is considered as the first work of essay of Nepali literature. During this time Nepali developed

5832-491: The 2011 census). It is spoken by 20,250,952, about 77.20% of the population, as their first language and second language . Total number of Nepali speakers in India by state (2011 census) According to the 2011 census of India , there were a total of 2,926,168 Nepali language speakers in India. In Bhutan , native Nepali speakers, known as Lhotshampa , are estimated at 35% of the population. This number includes displaced Bhutanese refugees , with unofficial estimates of

5940-654: The Eastern Pahari group of the Northern zone of Indo-Aryan. The language originated from the Sinja Valley , Karnali Province then the capital city of the Khasa Kingdom around the 10th and 14th centuries. It developed proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages , most significantly to other Pahari languages . Nepali was originally spoken by the Khas people , an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group native to

6048-432: The Lower Mustang. Spring and autumn are generally dry, but some precipitation is brought by summer monsoons, which averaged 133 mm at Jomsom between 1973 and 2000. The mean minimum monthly air temperature falls to -2.7 °C in winter while the maximum monthly air temperature reaches 23.1 °C in summer. Both diurnal and annual variations in temperature are large. Only about 40.3 square kilometres, about 1 per cent of

6156-490: The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973), while seven of the mammal species are included in different threat categories of IUCN Red Data Book. Vegetation of Mustang District is of the steppe type and consists of grasslands interspersed with scrub. Cold desiccating winds, a short growing season, low precipitation and cold air temperatures limit the standing biomass produced from the steppe vegetation. Scrub

6264-460: The Tibetan plateau to eventually flow into the Ganges in India. Not too far from Jomsom is Muktinath, the famous pilgrimage site for Buddhists as well as Hindus. To Hindus, Muktinath is a sacred place of salvation. They believe that bathing in the waters here guarantees salvation after death. The Hindu god, Brahma, is said to have lit the eternal flames that burn at Muktinath. To Buddhists, Muktinath

6372-503: The area of Lete . The gorge then broadens past the border of Mustang and Myagdi districts. Geographically, Lower Mustang lies between the Tibetan Plateau in the North and high Himalayan Mountains in the South. The region between the Tibetan Plateau and Himalayan Mountain is called Trans-Himalaya. The Kali Gandaki Gorge or Andha Galchi, measured by the difference between the river height and

6480-710: The border and encroaching on the small plots of pastureland Lopas used to feed their sheep, yaks, donkeys and mules, causing Lopa wealth to deteriorate further. Socially, the They are divided into three groups, one of which contains those of royal heritage. Rules of society are based on the values of respect and honour. The structure of their families is also based on these and other traditions. They practice Tibetan Buddhism . Sometimes marriages are made by parental agreement, other times by capture or elopement. Like other people who live in harsh terrains, they are generous and kind, and also are shrewd businesspersons. One tradition says that

6588-514: The centuries, different dialects of the Nepali language with distinct influences from Sanskrit , Maithili , Hindi , and Bengali are believed to have emerged across different regions of the current-day Nepal and Uttarakhand, making Nepali the lingua franca . Nepali is a highly fusional language with a relatively free word order , although the dominant arrangement is subject–object–verb word order (SOV). There are three major levels or gradations of honorific : low, medium and high. Low honorific

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6696-399: The compassion of all Buddhas. The people of restricted northern areas of Mustang are known as Lopa . But, they use surname like Bista and Gurung outside their lands. The restricted area, lying between Tibetan border and Ghemi village, encompasses the historic kingdom of Lo Tsho Dyun ("seven districts of Lo" in local Tibetan dialect of Loke). Lo Manthang is the only walled city of Nepal and it

6804-693: The council managed the community farm-system. The pastures and forests were exclusive to each community, where every household had an entitlement graze or collect wood, though collecting leaves and wood from trees in private ownership were more common. Traditionally, Mustang District has been divided into four social and geographical regions. From south to north they are: Thak Satsae (also known as lower Thak Khola), Panchgaon (upper Thak Khola) and Baragaon (mostly considered part of Thak Khola, sometime called lower Lo) in Lower Mustang and Lo Tsho Dyun or (also known simply as Lo) in Upper Mustang , though it

6912-558: The discovery of valuable Buddhist paintings, sculptures, manuscripts and numerous artefacts belonging to the 12th to 14th century. The caves lie on the steep valley walls near the Kali Gandaki River in Upper Mustang . In 2007, explorers from the United States , Italy and Nepal discovered ancient Buddhist decorative art and paintings, manuscripts and pottery in the Mustang caves near Lo Manthang , dating back to

7020-472: The district are thousands of cliff dwellings, some highly inaccessible. These Mustang Caves or Sky Caves of Nepal are a collection of some 10,000 man-made caves dug into the sides of valleys in the Mustang. Several groups of archaeologists and researchers have explored these stacked caves and found partially mummified human bodies and skeletons that are at least 2,000–3,000 years old. Explorations of these caves by conservators and archaeologists have also led to

7128-402: The eldest son will inherit the family's property. When he does, the next son must become a Buddhist monk. Lower Kali Gandaki valley forms the border to demarcate east and west for the distribution of flora and fauna of Mustang. It is rich in both temperate and trans-Himalayan biodiversity with flora and fauna that are most common to those that are highly rare. Though biodiversity of Upper Mustang

7236-413: The entire district, and Marpha is very popular for the apple orchards and apple brandy. Panchgaon was once ruled by the king of Sum Garabdzong (or Sumpo Garabdzong, near present-day Thini), and the bem-chag records mainly deal with the foundation and boundaries of that kingdom. The village records or bem-chag kept in the five original villages including Thini, Syang, Marpha , Chairo and Cimang are one of

7344-668: The ethnic Bhutanese refugee population as high as 30 to 40%, constituting a majority in the south (about 242,000 people). Nepali is the third-most spoken language in the Australian state of Tasmania , where it is spoken by 1.3% of its population, and fifth-most spoken language in the Northern Territory , Australia, spoken by 1.3% of its population. Nepali is the most spoken language other than English in Rockdale and Kogarah . In Granville , Campsie and Ashfield it

7452-485: The final schwa: Note: Schwas are often retained in music and poetry to add extra syllables when needed. Nepali is a highly fusional language with relatively free word order , although the dominant arrangement is SOV (subject–object–verb). There are three major levels or gradations of honorifics : low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. There

7560-793: The foot of the Thorong La mountain pass in Muktinath Valley. It is considered to be 106th among the available 108 Divya Desam (premium temples) considered sacred by the Sri Vaishnava sect. The ancient name of this place in Sri Vaishnava literature is Thiru Saligramam . The temple houses the Saligram shila , considered to be the naturally available form of the Hindu Godhead Sriman Narayan . It

7668-416: The heights of the highest peaks on either side, is the world's deepest canyon . The portion of the river directly between Dhaulagiri and Annapurna I (7 km downstream from Tukuche) is at an elevation of 2,520 m or 8,270 ft, 5,571 m or 18,278 ft lower than Annapurna I. Major peaks along the gorge include Dhaulagiri (8,167 m or 26,795 ft) and Tukuche (6,920 m or 22,703 ft) on

7776-504: The higher elevation conifers with birch Betula utilis . Mustang is rich in medicinal and aromatic plants with very high economic and ethnomedicinal values. Local people use a number of plants for food, spices, fibre, medicine, fuel, dye, tannin, gum, resin, religious purposes, roofing materials, handicrafts, etc. Medicinal use of 121 plant species was recorded in a study. These 121 plants included 49 vascular plants and 2 fungi species from 92 genera. These plants, including different parts of

7884-647: The hills". Early forms of present-day Nepali developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa Vernaculars of present-day western Nepal in the 10th–14th centuries, during the times of the Khasa Kingdom . The language evolved from Sanskrit , Prakrit , and Apabhraṃśa . Following the decline of the Khasa Kingdom, it was divided into Baise Rajya (22 principalities) in Karnali - Bheri region and Chaubise rajya (24 principalities) in Gandaki region. The currently popular variant of Nepali

7992-403: The indispensable sources for the study of the history of the Mustang. The dominant ethnic group is Thakali, also known as Panchgaonle ("people of Panchgaon"). People from Marpha, Chhairo and Chimang write clan names as their surname. The four clans are Hirachan, Lalchan, Jwarchan and Pannachan. But the people from Thini and Syang write their surname as only Thakali to identify by themselves. Among

8100-461: The informants from Thini, they do not categorise those people who are originated from Marpha and Chhairo as original Thakali. They even do not have socio-religious relationships such as marriage and other local religious activities with Marpha and Chhairo. Baragaon ("Twelve Villages") is a northerly sub-region lying between Jomsom and the region of Lo, in and around the Muktinath Valley, extending from south of Ghilling to Lubra lying north of Jomsom. It

8208-500: The intention of raiding PLA positions in Tibet, which led to a border incident that caused the killing of a Nepalese officer who was mistaken as a Tibetan rebel. These guerrillas were aided by CIA and Tibetan Khampas . In the 1970s, after US president Richard Nixon had visited China, CIA withdrew its support and the Nepalese government disbanded Tibetan fighters. In 1961, People's Republic of China and Kingdom of Nepal officially signed

8316-555: The language of education, notably, by Dev Shumsher and Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana , who established Gorkhapatra , and the Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti respectively. At this time, Nepali had limited literature compared to Hindi and Bengali languages , a movement notably in Banaras , and Darjeeling was started to create uniformed Nepali identity, which was later adopted in Nepal following

8424-556: The language. In West Bengal , Nepali language was recognised by West Bengal Government in 1961 as the official language for the Darjeeling district , and Kalimpong and Kurseong . The Nepali Language Movement took place in India around 1980s to include Nepali language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India . In 1977, Nepali was officially accepted by Sahitya Academy , an organisation dedicated to

8532-532: The late eighteenth century. Mustang is the setting for a large part of the book The Kingdom , a novel by Clive Cussler and Grant Blackwood published in 2011. In December 1999, Ogyen Trinley Dorje , the 17th claimant Karmapa fled Tibet through this area. In response, China built a border fence immediately after. There is a PLA border outpost a few miles on Chinese side, it is the westernmost border outpost in Tibet Military District . The outpost

8640-490: The local development unit, the VDCs functioned as local political units. Before the VDCs there was the system of village community councils from 1960 to 1990, which forms the lowest strata of local administration. To be entitled to common property resources like pastures, forests and water for irrigation, it was necessary for a household to become a member and participate in the community council. Any endowment of such entitlement

8748-407: The northern Indian plains through the ancient kingdom of Mustang. It flows through a sheer-sided, deep canyon immediately south of the Mustang capital of Lo Manthang , then widens as it approaches Kagbeni where high Himalayan ranges begin to close in. The river continues southward past Jomsom , Marpha , and Tukuche to the deepest part of the gorge about 7 km (4.3 mi) south of Tukuche in

8856-636: The pass at the head of the Kali Gandaki Gorge in 1904. British Tibetologist David Snellgrove visited and researched Mustang's Buddhist temples and monasteries in 1956, 1960–61 and 1978. During the late 1950s and 60s, Mustang became the centre for Tibetan guerrillas engaged in small operations against the Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China in 1959. Tibetan guerrilla group Chushi Gangdruk operated out of Upper Mustang with

8964-529: The present king. Lo Monthang features the King's Palace and many monasteries that are being restored by art historians Europe. The village is noted for its tall white washed mud brick walls , gompas and the Raja's or Royal or King's Palace, a nine-cornered, five story structure built around 1400. There are four major temples: Jampa Lhakhang or Jampa Gompa, the oldest, built in the early 15th century and also known as

9072-711: The promotion of Indian literature . After Sikkim was annexed by India, the Sikkim Official Languages Act, 1977, made Nepali as one of the official languages of state. On 20 August 1992, the Lok Sabha passed a motion to add the Nepali language to the Eighth Schedule. Nepali written in the Devanagari script is the official language of Nepal. On 31 August 1992, Nepali was added to the list of scheduled languages of India . Nepali

9180-478: The reigns of Lakshmi Narasimha Malla and Pratap Malla , which indicates the significant increment of Nepali speakers in Kathmandu Valley. The institutionalisation of the Nepali language is believed to have started with the Shah kings of Gorkha Kingdom , in the modern day Gorkha District of Nepal. Following the Unification of Nepal , the language moved to the court of the Kingdom of Nepal in

9288-445: The retroflex symbols ⟨ ʈ , ʈʰ, ɖ , ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃⟩ are not purely retroflex [ ʈ , ʈʰ, ɖ , ɖʱ, ɽ , ɳ , ɽ̃] but apical postalveolar [ t̠ , t̠ʰ, d̠ , d̠ʱ, ɾ̠ , n̠ , ɾ̠̃]. Some speakers may use purely retroflex sounds after /u/ and /a/, but other speakers use the apical articulation in all positions. Final schwas may or may not be preserved in speech. The following rules can be followed to figure out whether or not Nepali words retain

9396-426: The roofs out of thinly chiseled stone squares. The roofs are extremely uniform and smooth; and on each corner, a small square is constructed so that prayer flags may be hung there. Most houses are built close together and have no windows, only holes in the walls to protect against the high speed winds that race up the mountains. A Lopa home almost never built toward the South because of the fierceness of these winds. This

9504-538: The same plant, were used to treat 116 different ailments. The most common type of medicinal plants were herbs (73%), which was followed by shrubs, trees, and, finally, climbers. Over 200 species of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) and medicinal and aromatic herbs (MAP) have been identified in Mustang. These plants were found to be used as medicine (50 species), food (33), fuel (27), fencing (24), fodder (19), ritual object (19), decoration (8), manure (7), dye/soap (3), psychoactive (3), and construction material (2 species). At

9612-664: The second least populated district and, with a population density of 4 per km, also the second least densely populated district. 7,093 or them were male, and 6,359 were female. Age of first marriage for Mustang people are varied: 15–19 Years 1,603, 20–24 Years 3,016, 25–29 Years 1,677, and others 1,030 (total married 7,326). According to the 1992 Census, the total population of the district was 14,319, not including temporary residents such as government and army officials, police, development workers, and Tibetan refugees. Nepali language Nepali ( English: / n ɪ ˈ p ɔː l i / ; Devanagari : नेपाली , [ˈnepali] )

9720-545: The states of Arunachal Pradesh , Assam , Himachal Pradesh , Manipur , Meghalaya , Mizoram and Uttarakhand . In Myanmar it is spoken by the Burmese Gurkhas . The Nepali diaspora in the Middle East , Brunei , Australia and worldwide also use the language. Nepali is spoken by approximately 19 million native speakers and another 14 million as a second language . Nepali is commonly classified within

9828-1138: The time of the 2011 Nepal census , Mustang District had a population of 13,452. As their first language, 39.4% spoke Nepali , 22.8% Lhopa , 17.9% Gurung , 13.6% Thakali , 2.2% Magar , 1.0% Tamang , 0.5% Sherpa , 0.4% Rai , 0.3% Belhare , 0.2% Kham , 0.2% Maithili , 0.2% Sign language , 0.1% Bhojpuri , 0.1% Newar , 0.1% Tharu and 1.0% other languages. Ethnicity/caste: 20.9% were Thakali , 20.1% Gurung , 19.3% Lhopa, 8.9% Kami , 7.9% Magar , 6.5% Chhetri , 4.4% Damai /Dholi, 3.1% Hill Brahmin , 2.0% Tamang , 0.8% Sherpa , 0.8% Thakuri , 0.7% Chhantyal , 0.6% Newar , 0.6% Rai , 0.6% Sarki , 0.3% Badi , 0.3% other Dalit , 0.3% Tharu , 0.1% Kulung , 0.1% Limbu and 1.7% others. Religion: 60.2% were Buddhist , 37.5% Hindu , 1.1% Christian , 0.7% Bon , 0.1% Kirati and 0.3% others. Literacy: 61.3% could read and write, 2.2% could only read and 36.4% could neither read nor write. According to demographic data published by Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report), 13,452 people lived in Mustang spread across an area of 3,573 km (1,380 sq mi), making it

9936-680: The total land area, is cultivated and 1,477 square kilometres, about 40%, is pasture land. Kora La at 4,660 metres (15,290 ft) in elevation is considered the lowest drivable path between Tibetan Plateau and Indian subcontinent . The elevation of the district range from 1640m in nearby Kopchepani under Kunjo VDC to 7061m in Nilgiri North above from the sea level. The peaks above 6000m in Mustang District are Tukuche peak (6920m), Nilgiri South (6839m), Yakwakang Peak (6462m), and Damodar Himal (6004m). Thorung Pass (5416m), arguably

10044-403: The trading town of Tukche and the pilgrimage site of Muktinath. Beyond the five villages — Marpha, Chhairo, Chimang, Syang and Thini — this area also includes more recent settlements such as Jomsom, Drumpa and Samle. All these settlements were distributed across two VDCs: Jomsom and Marpha . Jomsom is the district headquarter, Thini is historically one of the most significant sites in

10152-444: The valley. The best example of the unique architecture of this region is found in the village of Marpha which is a two-hour walk down from Jomsom, where one can find stone-flagged streets with an efficient underground drainage system and flat-roofed houses with a central courtyard, which best showcase the architecture of this area. The strong winds that blow up the valley prevent flights from taking off from Jomsom after 11am. Jomsom has

10260-561: The village of Ghasa in the south to the trading town of Tukuche in the north, bordering Jomsom (the district headquarter). Traditionally believed to have 700 households, the sub-region encompasses 13 villages along Thak Khaki, a segment of the Kali Gandaki located south of Jomsom (also called Tehragaon or "thirteen villages"): Ghasa, Taglung, Dhamphu, Kunjo, Titi, Sauru Khanti, Lete, Kobang, Nakung, Naurikot, Bhurjungkot, Larjung and Tukuche. They were distributed across four VDCs: Lete , Kowang , Kunjo and Tukuche . Thak Satsae Area or Thak Khola

10368-903: The villages of Panchgaon, Mawatan Thankalis are from Marpha and Yhulkasompaimhi, Yhulgasummi or Yhulgasumpa Thakalis are from Thini, Syang and Chimang. While more than 80 per cent of the Tamang Thakali are found outside Thak Khola, nearly half of the total Mawatan Thakali population still live in Marpha village. Thini village, one of the oldest Thakali villages in Thak Khola region does not categorise itself within Panchgaonle (people from Panchgaon), instead they categorise themselves within Tingaonle Thakali (people from three villages) which includes Thini, Syang and Chimang. According to

10476-534: The way back to Ame Pal. Ame Pal oversaw the founding and building of much of the Lo and Mustang capital of Lo Manthang , a walled city surprisingly little changed in appearance from that time period. The only remnant of these kingdoms is the still-intact Kingdom of Lo, an area corresponding to the northern third of Mustang District. In 1769, the army of Prithvi Narayan Shah , the first King the Gorkha Kingdom and

10584-427: The west and Nilgiri Central (6,940 m or 22,769 ft) and Annapurna (8,091 m or 26,545 ft) on the east. Much of the history of Mustang is about legends rather than documented facts. However, it is believed that Mustang or the Kingdom of Lo was once a part of Ngari area of Tibet and a loose collection of feudal estates, their history is also tied to Tibetan religion and culture, geography, and politics. It

10692-484: The world's highest and busiest pass, is located in this district. This district share 134.16 km (83.36 mi) long international border with Tibet Autonomous Region of China where 16 boundary pillars are in existence from pillar no. 18–33. The Kali Gandaki River is a highly important feature of the district. Its source located near the Tibetan border coincides with the Tibetan border and Ganges - Brahmaputra watershed divide. From there, it flows south towards

10800-449: Was Bhanubhakta Acharya 's Bhanubhakta Ramayana , a translation of the epic Ramayana from Sanskrit to Nepali for the first time. Acharya's work led to which some describe as "cultural, emotional and linguistic unification" of Nepal, comparatively to Prithvi Narayan Shah who unified Nepal. The modern period of Nepali begins in the early 20th century. During this time the ruling Rana dynasty made various attempts to make Nepali

10908-528: Was a part of Dhaulagiri Zone in Nepal's Western Development Region . In 2017, Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development (Nepal) re-structured the area into five Gaunpalikas or rural municipalities with five areas each, which are different from old VDCs. Since establishment of Kingdom of Mustang until restructuring of local governance of Nepal, the area of this district was divided into one parliamentary constituency, nine Ilakas, and 16 Village Development Committees (VDCs). While an Ilaka functioned as

11016-413: Was a restricted area until 1992, which makes it one of the most preserved regions in the world due to its relative isolation from the outside world, with a majority of the population still speaking traditional Tibetic languages . The name "Mustang" is derived from the Tibetan word meaning, "Plain of Aspiration." Upper Mustang was only opened to foreigners in 1992 (annual quota at present of 1,000 people). It

11124-521: Was included in Nepal. Historically, the region was under Tibetan ruler, but after 1786, it was included in Nepal. Ethnically, Thakalis are categorised as Tamang Thakalis from Thak Satsae, and Mawatan Thakali and Yhulkasompaimhi Thakalis from Panchgaon. The languages spoken by Thakalis fall in Tibeto-Burman category, and they believe in Buddhism. Thak Satsae ("Seven Hundred Thak") is the most southerly sub-region of Mustang. The sub-region extends from

11232-470: Was much greener. In 2007, a shepherd discovered a collection of 55 cave paintings near the village depicting the life of the Buddha . A series of at least twelve caves were discovered north of Annapurna and near the village of Lo Manthang, decorated with ancient Buddhist paintings and set in sheer cliffs at 14,000 feet (4,300 m) elevation. The paintings show Newari influence, dating to approximately

11340-598: Was often closely linked to adjoining kingdoms of Western Tibet and, during other periods of history, politically linked to Lhasa , the capital of Central Tibet . Lo was incorporated into the Tibetan Empire by Songtsen Gampo , the most famous Tibetan king. From the 15th century to the 17th century, Mustang had control over the trade between the Himalayas and India because of its strategic location. In 1380, Lo became an independent kingdom under Ame Pal. The last royal family traced its lineage for 25 generations, all

11448-551: Was renovated in 2009 to have a modern facility. The last official and later unofficial king ( raja or gyelpo ) of Mustang was Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista (1930–2016), Bista succeeded his father H.H. Sri Sri Sri Raja Angun Tenzing Tandul in 1964, and whose lineage dates back to Ame Pal, who founded the Kingdom of Lo six and half century earlier, He died on 16 December 2016 after living a retired life largely in Kathmandu since 2008 when Nepal abolished its own monarchy. One feature of

11556-426: Was the council's prerogative. All households of the village had representation in the council. A gemba (council leader), chosen from any male member of the council between 18 and 60 years of age, was appointed on yearly rotation. The council settled disputes, called for community work when needed, and distributed rights and responsibilities to community members. Individual households managed their private farms, while

11664-408: Was used before the official adoption notably by Jaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh , now considered one of the national heroes of Nepal , who advocated for the embracement of the term. The initial name of Nepali language was " Khas Kura " ( खस कुरा ), meaning language or speech of the Khas people , who are descended from the ancient Khasas of Mahabharata , as the language developed during the rule of

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