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127-584: The architecture of the Madrasa was also an important example of Islamic architectural development in Baghdad. The Madrasa has experienced several periods of decline and reemergence throughout its history. The most significant degradation to the Madrasa's architecture and position within Baghdad was the Mongol Siege of Baghdad (1258) . Today, the Madrasa is in a state of restoration as is it being overseen by

254-468: A Hanafi Sunni , though he still retained some residual shamanism. In 1309–10, he became a Shi'ite Muslim. An Armenian scribe in 1304 noted the death of "benevolent and just" Ghazan, who was succeeded by Khar-Banda Öljeitü, "who too, exhibits good will to everyone." A colophon from 1306 reports the conversion of Mongols to Islam and "they coerce everyone into converting to their vain and false hope. They persecute, they molest, and torment," including "insulting

381-413: A Khwarazmian daruyachi ( ' overseer official ' ) named Ali Ba'atar for the region and stationed 3,000 soldiers in the city, Hulegu gave instructions to rebuild Baghdad and to open its bazaars . On 8 March, he left the area, travelling northwards to Hamadan and then Azerbaijan, where he remained for a year. The fall of Baghdad marked the end of the five hundred-year-old Abbasid Caliphate—although

508-614: A palisade around the whole city and digging a moat inside this circumvallation; these fortifications were completed within a day. They constructed mounds out of bricks for their mangonels and ballistae and prepared their ammunition—the Mongols used palm trees and stones previously used in building the suburbs until they found suitable rocks in the Jebel Hamrin mountains , three days transport away. They also used pyrotechnics such as burning naphtha . To prevent anyone from using

635-535: A 16th-century historian details that so many books from Baghdad's libraries were thrown into the Tigris that "the colour of the river changed into black from their multitude," the historian Michal Biran has shown that large libraries reopened for learning and teaching within two years of the siege. Hulegu and his successors as rulers of the Ilkhanate actively patronized and encouraged musical and literary traditions; it

762-528: A calculated decision to show the consequences of defying the Mongol Empire. Sayyids , scholars, merchants who traded with the Mongols, and the Christians in the city on whose behalf Hulegu's wife Doquz Khatun , herself a Christian, had interceded, were deemed worthy and were instructed to mark their doors so their houses would be spared. The rest of the city was subject to pillaging and killing for

889-801: A contingent of merchants, dispatched by the Mongols, to be killed, Genghis Khan declared war on the Anushtegin dynasty in 1219. The Mongols overran the empire , occupying the major cities and population centers between 1219 and 1221. Iran was ravaged by the Mongol detachment under Jebe and Subutai , who left the area in ruin. Transoxiana also came under Mongol control after the invasion. Muhammad II's son Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu returned to Iran in c. 1224 after fleeing to India. The rival Turkic states, which were all that remained of his father's empire, quickly declared their allegiance to Jalal. He repulsed

1016-716: A continuation of Ala' al-Din Juvayni 's slightly earlier work, Tārikh-i jahangusha ('History of the World Conqueror' ) which narrates the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire and the rise of the Mongol Empire. Various other works were also commissioned. The later years of the Ilkhanate were also marked by interest in the Shahnameh , the Iranian epic by 11th-century poet Firdowsi . Not only were new copies of

1143-477: A dispute between Hanafi and Shafi'i Sunnis, expressed his view that Islam should be abandoned and Mongols should return to the ways of Genghis Khan. Qāshani also stated that Öljeitü had reverted for a brief period. As Muslims, Mongols showed a marked preference for Sufism , with masters like Safi-ad-Din Ardabili often treated with respect and favour. Öljaitü 's son, the last ilkhan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan ,

1270-463: A full week. According to Kirakos Gandzaketsi , a 13th-century Armenian historian, the Christians in Hulegu's army took special pleasure in Baghdad's sack. It is unknown how many inhabitants were killed: later Muslim writers estimated between 800,000 and two million deaths, while Hulegu himself, in a letter to Louis IX of France , noted that his army had killed 200,000. Figures may have been inflated by

1397-676: A joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched the young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. In 1262, Hulagu gave Greater Khorasan and Mazandaran to Abaqa and northern Azerbaijan to Yoshmut. Hulagu himself spent his time living as

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1524-577: A large number of its scholars left Baghdad to Egypt, the Levant, and other Islamic countries at the time. Two centuries after Tamerlane's destruction, there was an attempt at revival in 1589 but it closed its doors in 1638. In its place, the Mosque-Madrasa of al-Asifyah was established and connected to the Madrasa. In 1534, the Ottoman Turks seized control, maintaining a stable reign until

1651-563: A later inscription about the Ottoman Sultan Abd al-Aziz . There's evidence that suggests that in 1235, the madrasa contained an example of an early monumental water-powered alarm clock that announced the appointed hours of prayer and the time both by day and by night in the entrance hall as the Abbasids had many of these water-powered clocks at the time. The clock was said to be built by a man named "Ali Ibn Tha’lab" and based on

1778-524: A member of the dynasty eventually made it to Cairo , where the Mamluks installed him as Al-Mustansir II , he and his descendants were puppets of the Mamluk state and never gained much recognition in the wider Muslim world; they would later be usurped by the Ottomans , who maintained the title of caliph up to the 20th century. It also marked a shift of power away from Baghdad and towards cities like Tabriz ,

1905-578: A new census and decreed that each man in the Mongol-ruled West Asia must pay in proportion to his property. Persia was divided between four districts under Arghun. Möngke Khan granted the Kartids authority over Herat, Jam, Pushang (Fushanj), Ghor , Khaysar, Firuz-Kuh, Gharjistan, Farah, Sistan , Kabul, Tirah, and Afghanistan. Hulegu Khan , third son of Tolui, grandson of Genghis Khan, and brother of both Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan,

2032-672: A nomad in southern Azerbaijan and Armenia . During his early rule, the Ilkhanate experienced mass revolts by its subjects, with the exception of the Seljukids and Artuqids in Anatolia and Mardin . It was not until Shams al-Din Juvayni was appointed as vizier after 1262 that things started calming down and a more sustainable administration was implemented. Hulagu fell ill in February 1265 after several days of banquets and hunting. He died on 8 February and his son Abaqa succeeded him in

2159-516: A state religion in 1295. However, despite this conversion, the Ilkhanids remained opposed to the Mamluks, who had defeated both Mongol invaders and Crusaders . The Ilkhanids launched several invasions of Syria, but were never able to gain and keep significant ground against the Mamluks , eventually being forced to give up their plans to conquer Syria, along with their stranglehold over their vassals

2286-662: A subsequent epidemic among the survivors; scholars have debated whether this was an outbreak of plague , a precursor to the Black Death . Two days into the looting, on 15 February, Hulegu visited the caliphal palace and forced al-Musta'sim to reveal his treasures; some was distributed among commanders such as Guo Kan, but most loaded onto wagons and transported either to Möngke Khan in Karakorum or to Shahi Island in Azerbaijan, where Hulegu would be buried. Having granted

2413-524: A thousand-strong corps of military engineers led by Guo Kan , auxiliaries from all over the empire, and generals from all the branches of the Mongol imperial family, including three princes from the Golden Horde , the Chagatayid prince Teguder , and possibly one of Genghis Khan's grandsons through his daughter Checheikhen . Because of the size of his force, Hulegu's progress from Karakorum

2540-425: A type known in previous periods, as well as brass inlaid with gold, a newer trend used for more costly court objects. Among these examples is the base of the largest preserved candlestick from Islamic-era Iran, commissioned by one of Öljeitü 's viziers in 1308–09 and measuring 32.5 centimetres (13 in) high. Objects in gold and silver were likely also important but no examples have survived. Ceramic production

2667-562: Is a history of the Mongol dynasty while the second is a history of the Iranian and Islamic world, along with stories of other cultures. Ghazan also patronized Abu al-Qasim Qashani , who composed the Ta'rikh-i Uljaytu ('History of Öljeitü'), and Shihab al-Din Waṣṣaf , who wrote the Tajziyat al-amṣar wa-tazjiyat al-a'ṣar ('The Allocation of Cities and Propulsion of Epochs' ). The latter was intended as

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2794-751: Is filled with a repeating pattern of rhomboids and ornate medallions with vegetal motifs and peacocks in between them, while the other stripes are filled with large epigraphic inscriptions in Arabic script. Between these are narrower bands filled with other animals. The use of this piece for a royal funerary shroud in Europe suggests that Iranian textiles were still highly prized abroad during this period. In metalwork, Ilkhanid productions were often larger and more richly-decorated than earlier Iranian works. Major centers of production included Tabriz and Shiraz . Surviving pieces are often made of brass inlaid with copper,

2921-436: Is made up of three conical archways, star and polygon figures, and an inscription describing the patron of the building, Al-Mustansir. Earlier Umayyad and Abbasid themes of foliage and greenery are also evoked in the exterior facade of the entrance archways. The other entrances are ornately decorated with geometric patterns of zig-zags, square designs, and ornamentation centered around water. The southwestern entrance also includes

3048-478: Is now the countries of Iran , Azerbaijan , and Turkey . At its greatest extent, the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern Iraq , Syria , Armenia , Georgia , Afghanistan , Turkmenistan , Pakistan , part of modern Dagestan , and part of modern Tajikistan . Later Ilkhanid rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, converted to Islam . In the 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the Black Death . The last ilkhan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan , died in 1335, after which

3175-750: The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan divided Transcaucasia into three districts based on the Mongol military hierarchy. In Georgia, the population was temporarily divided into eight tumens . In 1244, Güyük Khan stopped raising of revenue from districts in Persia as well and offered tax exemptions to others. In accordance with a complaint by the governor Arghun Aqa , Möngke Khan prohibited ortogh -merchants (Mongol-contracted Muslim traders) and nobles from abusing relay stations and civilians in 1251. He ordered

3302-477: The Artuqid sultan of Mardin , and Kufa and Luristan . The Qara'unas Mongols ruled Khorasan as an autonomous realm and did not pay taxes. Herat 's local Kart dynasty also remained autonomous. Anatolia was the richest province of the Ilkhanate, supplying a quarter of its revenue while Iraq and Diyarbakir together supplied about 35 percent of its revenue. In 1330, the annexation of Abkhazia resulted in

3429-839: The Islamic Golden Age ; in reality, its ramifications are uncertain. After the accession of his brother Möngke Khan to the Mongol throne in 1251, Hulegu, a grandson of Genghis Khan , was dispatched westwards to Persia to secure the region. His massive army of over 138,000 men took years to reach the region but then quickly attacked and overpowered the Nizari Ismaili Assassins in 1256. The Mongols had expected al-Musta'sim to provide reinforcements for their army—the Caliph's failure to do so, combined with his arrogance in negotiations, convinced Hulegu to overthrow him in late 1257. Invading Mesopotamia from all sides,

3556-688: The Kaaba ) to Mecca in 1319. In 1325, Chupan undertook the pilgrimage and sponsored repairs to the water supply in Mecca and the construction of a madrasa (college) and a hammam (bathhouse) in Medina. These actions challenged the primacy of the Mamluks in the Hejaz and provoked the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad , into repeatedly reasserting his dominance in the region by sponsoring his own works there, by purging or replacing local officials, and by undertaking

3683-533: The Nahr Isa canal in mid-January 1258, whereupon his deputy Sughunchaq pushed the advance party to around 25 miles (40 km) from the city. On 16 January, Sughunchaq was confronted by the dawatdar with 20,000 infantry and forced to retreat; the caliphal army pursued, but that night Baiju's forces broke the dykes of the Dujayl Canal and flooded the camp of the celebrating Abbasid army. Many drowned, and

3810-659: The Shahrizor plain , and on the left by Kitbuqa in Khuzistan , Hulegu commanded the main Mongol force and sacked Kermanshah on 6 December. After a council of war in mid-December, his commanders dispersed to carry out different tasks. Baiju returned to the vanguard at Irbil , and crossing the Tigris at Mosul with the help of its emir Badr al-Din Lu'lu' , who also provided supplies, headed southwards towards Baghdad. Baiju reached

3937-593: The Southern Song , Hulegu was dispatched westwards to destroy the Ismaili Assassins and to ensure the submission of the Abbasid caliphs. For this task, he was assigned one fifth of the empire's manpower, a figure which has been variously calculated by modern scholars as between 138,000, nearly 200,000, or 300,000 men. The force contained troops from vassalized Armenia , including its king Hetoum I ,

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4064-685: The Sultanate of Rum and the Armenian kingdom in Cilicia . This was in large part due to civil war in the Mongol Empire and the hostility of the khanates to the north and east. The Chagatai Khanate in Moghulistan and the Golden Horde threatened the Ilkhanate in the Caucasus and Transoxiana, preventing expansion westward. Even under Hulagu's reign, the Ilkhanate was engaged in open warfare in

4191-600: The Transcaucasus . After they captured Isfahan in 1236, the Mongols began to test caliphal authority in Mesopotamia , besieging Irbil in 1237 and raiding up to the walls of Baghdad itself the following year. Chormaqan and his 1241 replacement Baiju thereafter raided the region nearly every year. Although Mongol rule was secured elsewhere in the Near East —their victory at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ reduced

4318-519: The dawatdar attempted to escape by sailing down the Tigris, but Hulegu's preparations held and forced him back into the city with a loss of three ships. Caliph al-Musta'sim sent out numerous envoys, including al-Alqami and Makkikha II , Patriarch of the Church of the East , during the next week, but Hulegu was determined on nothing less than unconditional surrender, especially after one of his commanders

4445-635: The hajj pilgrimage himself. The Ilkhanid period saw the creation of numerous written works devoted to history. They were typically intended for Ilkhanid administrators or even written for a particular ruler. Many of the writers in the early period were scholars who were trained under pre-Mongol dynasties but received patronage under the new regime. The most famous work of this time is the Jami' al-tawarikh ('Compendium of Histories') of Rashid al-Din , initially commissioned by Ghazan but presented to Öljeitü upon its completion in 1307. Its first surviving volume

4572-488: The jizya (minority religion tax). Ghazan gave Buddhists the starker choice of conversion or expulsion and ordered their temples to be destroyed; though he later relaxed this severity. After Nawrūz was deposed and killed in 1297, Ghazan made religious intolerance punishable and attempted to restore relations with non-Muslims. In terms of foreign relations, the Ilkhanids' conversion to Islam had little to no effect on its hostility towards other Muslim states, and conflict with

4699-615: The kuriltai for the next Great Khan. He left a small force of around 10,000 behind in Palestine that was defeated at the battle of Ain Jalut by the Mamluks of Egypt . Due to the suspicious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, Berke of the Golden Horde declared war on Hulagu in 1262. According to Mamluk historians, Hulagu might have massacred Berke's troops and refused to share his war booty with Berke. Berke sought

4826-513: The 6th of April, 1233, and a large celebration and feast was held in its opening. It was the first Islamic university in which the study of jurisprudence based on the four schools of thought; Hanafi , Shafi’i , Maliki , and Hanbali and all were combined into “one school.” This inspired al-Salihiyya Madrasa in Cairo which was established almost a decade after al-Mustansiriya Madrasa and also taught four schools of thought into one. The management of

4953-488: The British accession in the early 20th century. During the late 18th to early 20th century, al-Mustansiriya Madrasa was used largely for military purposes such as serving as a place of rest and resource as well as a storage house for soldier uniforms. This multipurpose building also became known as the K han al-Muwasilah in the 18th century specifically, which served as a caravanserai for traders passing through Baghdad. Over

5080-476: The Caliph. The collection was said to have grown to 400,000 volumes, although the reports of both these figures may have been exaggerated. Even though the libraries’ collection survived the Mongol sack of 1258 CE, it was merged with that of al-Nizamiyah Madrasa in 1393 CE, whose collection had subsequently been dispersed or disappeared. As a result of the Ottoman invasion and capture of Baghdad in 1534 CE, books from

5207-693: The Caucasus with the Mongols in the Russian steppes. On the other hand, the China-based Yuan dynasty was an ally of the Ikhanate and also held nominal suzerainty over the latter (the Emperor being also Great Khan) for many decades. Ghazan converted to Islam under influence of Nawrūz and made Islam the official state religion. Christian and Jewish subjects lost their equal status and had to pay

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5334-562: The Chinggisids. Tekuder was the first Muslim ruler of the Ilkhanate but he made no active attempt to proselytize or convert his realm. However he did try to replace Mongol political traditions with Islamic ones, resulting in a loss of support from the army. Arghun used his religion against him by appealing to non-Muslims for support. When Tekuder realized this, he executed several of Arghun's supporters, and captured Arghun. Tekuder's foster son, Buaq, freed Arghun and overthrew Tekuder. Arghun

5461-615: The Dar al-Qur'an and the Dar al-Hadith. The Dar al-Qur’an, or the House of Qur’an, was dedicated to the study and recitation of the Qur’an. There was a designated reciter of the Qur'an and a fellow aid to help teach the students. Along with the students, there were thirty orphans who were housed in the complex. All students, including the orphans, were designated an equal wage, bread, and stew. The Dar al-Hadith

5588-708: The Directorate of Antiquities in Iraq. It is currently a part of al-Mustansiriya University , and is located on the left bank of the Tigris River. Adjacent landmarks include Souk al-Sarai , the Baghdadi Museum , Mutanabbi Street , the Abbasid Palace , and Caliph's Street. The madrasa was established by Caliph al-Mustansir and its cost amounted to 700 thousand dinars, and it was opened for study on

5715-632: The Ilkhanate and the Yuan Dynasty headquartered in China encouraged this development. The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy influence upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from

5842-410: The Ilkhanate disintegrated. The Ilkhanid rulers, although of non-Iranian origin, tried to advertise their authority by tying themselves to the Iranian past, and they recruited historians to present the Mongols as heirs to the Sasanian Empire (224–651). Native intellectuals interested in their own history interpreted the unification by the Mongols as a revival of their long-lost dynastic tradition, and

5969-442: The Ilkhanate – is the large fragment of a burial robe for Duke Rudolf IV of Austria (d. 1365), which was made from an Iranian import. The textile was originally manufactured in an Ilkhanid state workshop, most likely in Tabriz , and bears the name and titles of Abu Sa'id after 1319. It is woven in lampas and compound weaves in tan and red colours, with gold wefts . It features a motif of broad alternating bands: one set of stripes

6096-450: The Ilkhanids ruled their realm through a Central Asian-Persian ("Tajik") administration in partnership with Turco-Mongol military officers. Not all of the Persian administrators were Muslims or members of the traditional families that had served the Seljuqs and Khwarazmians (e.g, the Juvayni family ). For example, the Ilkhanate vizier from 1288 to 1291 was Sa'ad al-Dawla , a Jew, while the prominent vizier and historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani

6223-423: The Ilkhans, Iranian historians also moved from writing in Arabic to writing in their native Persian tongue. The rudiments of double-entry accounting were practiced in the Ilkhanate; merdiban was then adopted by the Ottoman Empire . These developments were independent from the accounting practices used in Europe. This accounting system was adopted primarily as the result of socio-economic necessities created by

6350-480: The Madrasa is a basic four-iwan plan fit into a two-story rectangular building with a large courtyard. Each school of Islamic law was designated to a separate corner of the building. Some of the main decorative features includes muqarnas ; series of interconnected vaults used to highlight squinch zones of domes or exterior of minarets and domes. Al-Mustansiriya incorporates arabesque and carved brick decoration in an exterior tripartite facade. The main entrance

6477-430: The Madrasa is now part of al-Mustansiriya University . Currently, the Minister of Culture takes care of the complex of the madrasa. Al-Mustansiriya Madrasa was included on the list of the Islamic World Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO) in 2013, due to its great importance and significance in Islamic history. Generally, al-Mustansiriya Madrasa is considered the first university of its time. In 2020,

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6604-428: The Madrasa was carried out by a headmaster who was chosen by the senior state employees. The headmaster was assisted by a number of assistants, led by the supervisor, who was like the financial inspector. A number of employees were also hired to serve the teachers and students. Teachers usually consisted of senior Sheikhs and Imams from Iraq, the Levant and Egypt who were known for their deep research and study. Some of

6731-419: The Madrasa was closed for maintenance and restoration purposes although the restoration was stretched due to the Covid-19 pandemic . The complex is also fenced with an iron fence surrounding it on all sides. 33°20′19″N 44°23′23″E  /  33.3385°N 44.3896°E  / 33.3385; 44.3896 Siege of Baghdad (1258) The siege of Baghdad took place in early 1258 at Baghdad ,

6858-551: The Mamluks for control of Syria continued. The Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar , the only major victory by the Mongols over the Mamluk Sultanate , ended the latter's control over Syria for a few months. For the most part, Ghazan's policies continued under his brother Öljaitü despite suggestions that he might begin to favor Twelver Shi'ism after he came under the influence of the theologians al-Allama al-Hilli and al-Bahrani . Öljeitü, who had been baptised in Christianity as an infant and had flirted with Buddhism, eventually became

6985-425: The Mamluks. In 1327, Abu-Sai'd replaced Chupan with "Big" Hasan. Hasan was accused of attempting to assassinate the khan and exiled to Anatolia in 1332. The non-Mongol emirs Sharaf-ud-Din Mahmud-Shah and Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad were given unprecedented military authority, which irked the Mongol emirs. In the 1330s, outbreaks of the Black Death ravaged the Ilkhanate and both Abu-Sai'd and his sons were killed by 1335 by

7112-462: The Mongol army soon approached Baghdad, routing a sortie on 17 January 1258 by flooding their camp. They then invested Baghdad, which was left with around 30,000 troops. The assault began at the end of January. Mongol siege engines breached Baghdad's fortifications within a couple of days, and Hulegu's highly-trained troops controlled the eastern wall by 4 February. The increasingly desperate al-Musta'sim frantically tried to negotiate, but Hulegu

7239-400: The Mongol conquests was the emergence of the "national state" in Iran during the Ilkhanate era. The Ilkhanate Mongols remained nomadic in their way of life until the end of the dynasty. Their nomadic routes covered central Iraq , northwest Iran , Azerbaijan , and Armenia . The Mongols administered Iraq, the Caucasus , and western and southern Iran directly with the exception of Georgia ,

7366-406: The Mongol old guard with his alleged sexual relations with a boy. Gaykhatu was overthrown in 1295 and replaced with his cousin Baydu . Baydu reigned for less than a year before he was overthrown by Gaykhatu's officer, Ghazan . Hulagu's descendants ruled Persia for the next eighty years, tolerating multiple religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, and ultimately adopting Islam as

7493-417: The Mongols as Hülegü Ulus ( lit.   ' people / state of Hülegü ' ). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known as the Land of Iran or simply Iran . It was established after Hülegü , the son of Tolui and grandson of Genghis Khan , inherited the West Asian and Central Asian part of the Mongol Empire after his brother Möngke Khan died in 1259. The Ilkhanate's core territory lies in what

7620-407: The Mongols under Baiju occupied Anatolia , while the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and the Empire of Trebizond became vassals of the Mongols. In 1236 Ögedei commanded Greater Khorasan to be restored and the city of Herat repopulated. The Mongol military governors mostly made camp in the Mughan plain in what is now Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger posed by the Mongols, the rulers of Mosul and

7747-503: The Persian word for lapis lazuli . These often had a deep blue or sometimes blue-ish turquoise glaze and were then overglaze -painted with red, black, white, and gold colours. These have been found at Takht-i Sulaymān and they may have replaced the pre-Mongol mina'i ceramics. The emergence of the Ilkhanate had an important historical impact in West Asia . The establishment of the unified Mongol Empire had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The communications between

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7874-418: The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum to a client state —Baghdad remained unconquered, and even defeated a Mongol force in 1245. Another problem was the secretive Nizari Ismaili state , also known as the Order of Assassins , in the Elburz Mountains . They had killed Mongol commanders during the 1240s, and had allegedly dispatched 400 Assassins to the Mongol capital Karakorum to kill the khan himself. Möngke Khan

8001-516: The Tigris to escape, Hulegu ordered the construction of pontoon bridges across the river on both sides of the city. Despite Baghdad's frailty—the flood-weakened walls were in disrepair and the garrison, at most 50,000 strong before the dawatdar 's sortie , was untrained and largely incapable—Hulegu meticulously planned his operations to cover all eventualities. The assault on Baghdad's walls began on either 29 or 30 January. The Mongol forces arrowed messages containing guarantees of safety into

8128-401: The Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization. The Ilkhanate also helped to pave the way for the later Safavid dynastic state, and ultimately the modern country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests had also opened Iran to Chinese influence from the east. This, combined with patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's distinctive excellence in architecture. Under

8255-410: The agricultural and fiscal reforms of Ghazan Khan in 1295–1304. The title ilkhan resurfaced among the Qashqai nomads of southern Iran in the 19th century. Jan Mohammad Khan started using it in 1818/19, and this was continued by all the following Qashqai leaders. The last Qashqai ilkhan was Nasir Khan, who in 1954 was pushed into exile after his support of Mohammad Mosaddegh . When he returned during

8382-489: The bank of the river so that I might not have been able to cross it?" "Such", replied the Caliph, "was God's will." "What will befall you," said the khan, "is also God's will." This incident is likely the source of a folktale, reproduced in the writings of Christian writers such as Marco Polo , in which Hulegu subsequently locked al-Musta'sim in a cell surrounded by his treasures, whereupon he starved to death in four days. In reality, on 20 February, after Hulegu had halted

8509-401: The caliph by opening secret negotiations with Hulegu. In 1256, sectarian violence between Sunnis and Shi'a had broken out after a devastating flood, placing Baghdad in a difficult position; however, al-Musta'sim and his ministers were still quite delusional concerning their chances of success. ...I will bring you crashing down from the summit of the sky, Like a lion I will throw you down to

8636-546: The caliph peacefully submit and send his three principal ministers—the vizier, the commander of the soldiers, and the dawatdar (keeper of the inkpot)—to the Mongols; all three likely refused, and three less important officials were sent instead. Al-Musta'sim's reply to Hulegu's letter called the Mongol leader young and ignorant, and presented himself as able to summon armies from all of Islam. Accompanied by disrespectful behaviour towards Hulegu's envoys, who were exposed to taunting and mockery from mobs on Baghdad's streets, this

8763-449: The caliph surrendered on 10 February, bringing his family and 3,000 dignitaries. Hulegu asked al-Musta'sim to order the population of the city to leave the city after laying their weapons down; those who obeyed were slaughtered. The caliph and his family were housed near Kitbuqa's forces near the southern gate. On 13 February, the sack of Baghdad began. This was not an act of wanton destruction, as it has commonly been presented, but rather

8890-465: The caliph. In contrast to the exaggerations of later Muslim historians, Baghdad prospered under Hulegu's Ilkhanate , although it did decline in comparison to the new capital, Tabriz . Baghdad was founded in 762 by al-Mansur , the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty , which had recently overthrown the empire of the Umayyads . Al-Mansur believed that the new Abbasid Caliphate needed a new capital city , located away from potential threats and near

9017-519: The capital of the Ilkhanate , the khanate founded by Hulegu in the aftermath of the siege. Baghdad's fall was not as era-defining as has been suggested, although the end of the caliphate marked a momentous occasion for the Islamic world. Muslim writers have traditionally ascribed the decline of the Islamic Golden Age , and consequently the subsequent rise of the Western world , to this one event; however, such an argument has been criticized as simplistic and lazy. Whereas an oft-quoted description from

9144-420: The circle were two model falcons, made of gold, each inside a golden bowl. Two bronze ball bearings were positioned behind each falcon so that they were not visible to the observer. At the moment of the elapsing of an hour, the mouth of each falcon opened, and out fell the ball bearings. Each time a ball bearing fell, one of the doors inside the arches opened. The doors were golden, but they then became silver (i.e.

9271-466: The city—those covered by the guarantees included Christians, certain Muslim figures, and those who had not fought the Mongols or who had surrendered. The first breach was made in the southeast Ajami tower, near Hulegu's camp, on 1 February, but the Mongols were driven back; further breaches over the next two days enabled them to access and seize control of the east battlements by 4 February. Sensing defeat,

9398-765: The complex. The Mongol Sack of 1258 devastated parts of the Madrasa that were later restored. After the initial attack, the Mongols settled in Baghdad under the emperors of the Il-Khanids . Among the notables of the madrasa during this period was the librarian and historian Ibn al-Fuwati who returned to Baghdad in 1281 and was appointed director of the Madrasa. Under Tamerlane , the madrasas of Baghdad, including this one, suffered greatly and studies in them were suspended. He had destroyed Baghdad twice, first in 1392 and second in 1400, and destroyed its schools; he took many of its writers, engineers, and architects to Samarkand . The Madrasa's library has also lost thousands of books and

9525-602: The concept of "Land of Iran" ( Irān-zamin ) was considered an important ideology and was further developed by the later Safavid Empire (1501–1736). Similar to the development in China under the Yuan dynasty , the revival of the concept of territorial unity, although not intended by the Mongols, became a lasting legacy of Mongol rule in Iran. According to the historian Rashid al-Din Hamadani , Kublai Khan granted his brother Hülegü

9652-520: The conquest of the Kingdom of Georgia in 1238. They began to attack the western parts of Bagratid Armenia , which was under the Seljuks , the following year. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia (including modern-day Azerbaijan), Armenia, Georgia (excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds), as well as all of Afghanistan and Kashmir . After the battle of Köse Dağ in 1243,

9779-481: The cross and the church". Some of the Buddhists who survived Ghazan's assaults made an unsuccessful attempt to bring Öljeitü back into Buddhism, showing they were active in the realm for more than 50 years. The conversion of Mongols was initially a fairly superficial affair. The process of establishment of Islam did not happen suddenly. Öljeitü's historian Qāshāni records that Kutlushah , after losing patience with

9906-576: The defeat, Abaqa executed the local regent Mu'in-ad-Din Pervane and replaced him with the Mongol prince Qongqortai. In 1281, Abaqa sent Mongke Temur against the Mamluks, but he too was defeated at Homs . Abaqa's death in 1282 triggered a succession struggle between his son Arghun , supported by the Qara'unas , and his brother Tekuder, supported by the Chinggisid aristocracy. Tekuder was elected khan by

10033-543: The dynasty's power base in Persia . Incredibly wealthy due to the trade routes and taxes it controlled, Baghdad quickly became a world city and the epicentre of the Islamic Golden Age : poets, writers, scientists, philosophers, musicians, and scholars of every type thrived in the city. Containing centres of learning like the House of Wisdom and astronomical observatories , which used the newly-arrived technology of paper and

10160-676: The era of the Crusades.) Despite their shared opposition to the Muslims , primarily the Mamluk Sultanate , no formal alliance ever was concluded. While Abu Sa'id eventually concluded a peace treaty with the Mamluks in 1322, the rivalry between the two powers continued diplomatically. Abu Sa'id, as a Muslim ruler, sought to demonstrate his legitimacy further abroad in Islamic terms, particularly through efforts to exert influence over

10287-757: The famous Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi learned about the mode of the Chinese calculating tables . An observatory was built on a hill of Maragheh . Taking over from Baiju in 1255, Hulagu established Mongol rule from Transoxiana to Syria . He destroyed the Nizari Ismaili state and the Abbasid Caliphate in 1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself ilkhan (subordinate khan). After that he advanced as far as Gaza, briefly conquering Ayyubid Syria and Aleppo in 1260. Möngke's death forced Hulagu to return to Mongolia to attend

10414-522: The first Mongol attempt to take Central Persia. However, Jalal ad-Din was overwhelmed and crushed by Chormaqan 's army sent by the Great Khan Ögedei in 1231. During the Mongol expedition, Azerbaijan and the southern Persian dynasties in Fars and Kerman voluntarily submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute. To the west, Hamadan and the rest of Persia was secured by Chormaqan. The Mongols invaded Armenia and Georgia in 1234 or 1236, completing

10541-587: The gathering of the teachings of antiquity from all Eurasia, Baghdad was "the intellectual capital of the planet", in the words of the historian Justin Marozzi . During the tenth century, the Abbasids gradually decreased in power. This culminated in Baghdad being occupied, first by the Buyids in 945 and then the Seljuks in 1055, by which time the caliphs had only local authority. They focused their attentions on Baghdad itself, which retained its position as one of

10668-417: The golden door was replaced by a silver one). When the ball bearings fall into the bowls below they then run back to their original positions. Then golden planets ascend into the azure sky within this depiction of the heavens simultaneously with the rising of the real sun in the sky. They move [on the clock face] mirroring the movement of the sun across the sky [so that they eventually] descend and disappear with

10795-534: The historic capital of the Abbasid Caliphate . After a series of provocations from its ruler, Caliph al-Musta'sim , a large army under Hulegu , a prince of the Mongol Empire , attacked the city. Within a few weeks, Baghdad fell and was sacked by the Mongol army—al-Musta'sim was killed alongside hundreds of thousands of his subjects. The city's fall has traditionally been seen as marking the end of

10922-399: The late 13th century, although it ceased producing ceramic vessels after 1284 and then produced only tiles until 1340. The designs were less accomplished than in previous periods but they started to incorporate new Chinese-inspired motifs such as lotuses and simurghs . Starting around the 1270s or 1280s, a new style of expensive ceramic started to be produced, known as lajvardina , from

11049-454: The latter, as there are artistic similarities between Mamluk and Ilkhanid manuscripts. One notable development in this period is the production of manuscripts with very large pages, up to 70 by 50 centimetres (28 in × 20 in) in size, with accordingly large scripts, particularly in muhaqqaq style. Illustrations were common and are found in works on a variety of topics such as history, nature, religion, and astronomy. Among these

11176-401: The lowest depths. I will not leave a single person alive in your country, I will turn your city, lands and empire into flames. If you have the heart to save your head and your ancient family, Listen carefully to my advice. If you refuse to accept it, I will show you the meaning of the will of God. End of the first letter from Hulegu to al-Musta'sim, September 1257 Hulegu spent

11303-432: The myth of the caliphate being an all-powerful, invulnerable, and inviolate entity. If, as later writers allege, al-Alqami had betrayed Baghdad to the Mongols, Hulegu would have had him executed—such was the Mongol policy regarding all traitors. Instead, because of his efforts to dissuade the caliph from a foolish path, he was reappointed to the vizierate, although he died less than three months later. Having also appointed

11430-462: The palace to Makkikha to be a church, Hulegu then held a celebratory banquet in which he mockingly played host to the caliph. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, who was likely present, recorded the following dialogue: [Hulegu] set a golden tray before the Caliph and said: "Eat!" "It is not edible," said the Caliph. "Then why did you keep it," asked the khan, "and not give it to your soldiers? And why did you not make these iron doors into arrow-heads and come to

11557-568: The palaces and libraries were taken as the spoils of war and became an important part of the royal library in Istanbul. After the 13th century, the Madrasa experienced a period of decline in prominence, followed by fluctuating centuries of purpose and power. The widespread annihilation and conquest of the Mongols throughout the Middle East resulted in the first stages of transformation for

11684-463: The period of Iraq before the Mongol invasion. It is safe to assume that since Ibn al-Fuwati was a native of Baghdad, the following description he gave on the clock was either his eyewitness account or one that he heard firsthand from another person. Ibn al-Fuwati recounts: “On the outside wall of this counter was a circle on which there was a depiction of the heavens, and on it were many finely decorated bronze arches housing finely decorated doors. Within

11811-552: The plague. Ghiyas-ud-Din put a descendant of Ariq Böke , Arpa Ke'un , on the throne, triggering a succession of short-lived khans until "Little" Hasan took Azerbaijan in 1338. In 1357, Jani Beg of the Golden Horde conquered Chupanid-held Tabriz for a year, putting an end to the Ilkhanate remnant. In contrast to the China-based Yuan dynasty, who excluded the native population from gaining control of high offices,

11938-422: The plundering and killing and moved his camp away from the city to escape the increasingly putrid air, al-Musta'sim was executed alongside his whole family and court. To avoid spilling a royal's blood, a great taboo for the Mongols, the caliph was wrapped in a rolled-up carpet and trampled to death by horses. Hulegu had debated whether to put al-Musta'sim to death at all, but eventually decided on doing so to break

12065-418: The practicalities of attacking Baghdad. The astronomer Husam al-Din prophesied doom, stating that all rulers who had attacked Baghdad had afterwards lost their kingdom. Hulegu then turned to the polymath Nasir al-Din al-Tusi , who simply replied that none of these disasters would happen, and that Hulegu would rule in place of the caliph. Flanked on the right wing by the Golden Horde princes, who approached via

12192-467: The preeminent cities of the world—it was joined only by Kaifeng and Hangzhou in having over a million inhabitants between 1000 and 1200 . The caliphate reemerged as a significant power under al-Nasir ( r.  1180–1225 ), who saw off threats from the last Seljuk rulers and their successors, the Khwarazmians . Muhammad II of Khwarazm 's 1217 invasion of the Abbasids failed, and his realm

12319-463: The remainder were engaged by Baiju's army the following morning—they were routed and only a few, including the dawatdar , made it back to Baghdad. Meanwhile, Kitbuqa had crossed the Tigris to the south and was approaching the Karkh suburbs , while Hulegu himself reached the eastern suburbs on 22 January, where he was welcomed by the local Shi'ites. The Mongols then closely invested Baghdad by erecting

12446-694: The reunification of the Kingdom of Georgia. However, tribute received by the Il-Khans from Georgia sank by about three-quarters between 1336 and 1350 because of wars and famines. The courts of Western Europe made many attempts to ally with the Mongols, primarily with the Ilkhanate, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, starting from around the time of the Seventh Crusade in the mid-13th century. (Western Europeans were collectively called 'Franks' – ' 'Farang', 'Faranji' – by Muslims and Asians in

12573-435: The setting of the sun. When night comes then there are planets that gradually emerge [to the observer] because of a light glowing from behind them. The [strength of the] light emitting from the discs of the planets [grows gradually and] reaches its fullest intensity on the completion of a full hour. Then this process begins in the next planet-disc and so on until the night ends and the sun begins to rise. In this way, you can know

12700-539: The smaller examples from Baghdad took four years to transcribe and eight years to decorate – and feature elaborate multi-coloured frontispieces with geometric designs similar to those seen in Ilkhanid architecture such as the Sultaniyya Mausoleum . High-quality silk textiles were also produced under the Ilkhanids. The most important surviving example – possibly the only one definitively attributable to

12827-646: The stronghold at Gerdkuh , and sacked the city of Tun between 1253 and 1256. The Grand Master of the Assassins, Ala ad-Din Muhammad , had died in December 1255, and Hulegu sent ambassadors to his young successor, Rukn al-Din Khurshah . The new Grand Master attempted to stall for time, but his fortresses steadily fell to the Mongols and he surrendered from Maymun-Diz on 19 November 1256. Rukn al-Din persuaded

12954-446: The stronghold of Alamut to surrender on 15 December. Hulegu had expected the Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim to provide troops for the campaign against the Assassins; the caliph had initially assented, but his ministers argued that the real purpose of the request was to empty Baghdad of potential defenders, and so he refused. Later Sunni writers accused Baghdad's vizier , a Shi'ite named Muhammad ibn al-Alqami , of having betrayed

13081-525: The summer of 1257 on or near the Hamadan plain , where he was rejoined by Baiju, who had been subduing restless vassals in the northwest. Baiju brought Seljuk, Georgian , and Armenian vassals, including the princes Pŕosh Khaghbakian and Zak‘arē , to join the Mongol army. In September, Hulegu began a correspondence with al-Musta'sim, described by the historian René Grousset as "one of the most magnificent dialogues in history". His first message demanded that

13208-621: The summer. Upon Abaqa 's accession, he immediately faced an invasion by Berke of the Golden Horde, which ended with Berke's death in Tiflis . In 1270, Abaqa defeated an invasion by Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq of the Chagatai Khanate . Abaqa's brother Tekuder sacked Bukhara in retaliation. In 1277, the Mamluks invaded Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan . Stung by

13335-426: The teachers were also assisted by higher teachers. Employees of the Madrasa also had a salary. In 1235, an early monumental water-powered alarm clock that announced the appointed hours of prayer and the time both by day and by night was completed in the entrance hall of al-Mustansiriya Madrasa in Baghdad. Within the school of Islamic studies, there were specific divisions of Islamic knowledge. The divisions included

13462-476: The times of the prayers.” In 1973, al-Mustansiriya Madrasa was overseen by the Directorate of Antiquities in Iraq. Since then, the complex has been in a consistent state of reconstruction. Recently, the modern businesses surrounding the Madrasa have been demolished with the intention of restoring the original perimeters of the complex. As a result of the reconstruction and conservation of this complex, al-Mustansiriya Madrasa still plays an important role in Baghdad as

13589-468: The title ilkhan after Hülegü's defeat of Ariq Böke , another brother. The term ilkhan here means " khan of the tribe, khan of the ulus ", and this lesser khanship refers to the initial deference to Möngke Khan and his successors as Great Khans of the Mongol Empire . The title ilkhan carried by the descendants of Hulagu and, later, other Borjigin princes in Persia, does not appear in the sources until after 1260. When Muhammad II of Khwarazm ordered

13716-519: The traditional clocks found in Damascus at the time. The clock included metallic and golden doors; bird figurines dropping metal balls into vessels that told the elapsing of an hour during the day as well as functions and lighting to announce the night which mirrored the movements of celestial objects. Furthermore, the clock was mentioned with great detail in aI-Hawadith al-Jami'a Wal-Tajarub al-Nafi'a Fi al-Mi'a al-Sabi'a by Ibn al-Fuwati which dealt with

13843-490: The two holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina . Even prior to the peace treaty's conclusion, the Ilkhan began sending large and richly-equipped pilgrimage ( hajj ) caravans from Iraq. In 1330 he went so far as to include, at great cost, an elephant in the caravan. He also arranged for his name to be read aloud in the khutba (Friday sermon) in Medina for a time in 1318 and sent the kiswa (the ceremonial cloth covering

13970-478: The work produced, but it also inspired new historical works that copied its style and format, such as those of Hamdallah Mustawfi . Among the arts patronized by the Ilkhans, the most important were the arts of the book. The major centers of manuscript production and illumination were Mosul and Baghdad in Iraq. They matched the quality of contemporary production in the Mamluk Sultanate and may have influenced

14097-482: The years, the madrasa suffered from neglect, and much of the building was lost until 1960 when the Iraqi government restored the Madrasa's complex and opened it for visits and tourists as a historic monument. Al-Mustansiriya Madrasa is one of the only buildings still standing that provides evidence for Baghdad's role as a center for Islamic Art and for the city's role in the development of geometric ornaments. The layout of

14224-465: Was a Jewish convert to Islam. The Ilkhanid rulers, who were keen to increase their autonomy, supported their Persian bureaucrats' promotion of the traditional Iranian idea of kingship. The Persian concept of monarchy over a territorial empire, or more specifically, the "Kingship of the Land of Iran" ( pādshāhi-ye Irān-zamin ), was easily sold to their Mongol masters by these bureaucrats. A lasting effect of

14351-470: Was also a hospital located in the Madrasa, allowing medical students to learn and practice medicine within the same complex. Al-Mustansiriya Madrasa included a variety of buildings such as a hammam , public hospital, pharmacy, food storage site, and kitchen. There was also space designated for student residences. The Madrasa provided food, lodging, clothing, and a monthly stipend for its students. Its library had an initial collection of 80,000 volumes, given by

14478-636: Was also an increased production of copies of the Shahnameh . The most celebrated copy is the Great Mongol Shahnameh , a large manuscript probably produced for Abu Sa'id in the 14th century. Its pages include highly expressive illustrations that reflect influences from across Eurasia, including China and Europe. Some two dozen large-scale Qur'ans have survived and are among the most impressive artistically-produced Qur'ans created up to this point. They were each produced over many years – one of

14605-556: Was confirmed as ilkhan by Kublai Khan in February 1286. During Arghun's reign, he actively sought to combat Muslim influence, and fought against both the Mamluks and the Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz in Khorasan. To fund his campaigns, Arghun allowed his viziers Buqa and Sa'd-ud-dawla to centralize expenditures, but this was highly unpopular and caused his former supporters to turn against him. Both viziers were killed and Arghun

14732-523: Was dedicated to the study of the sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad. Within this school, there was a senior scholar, or shaykh, who held the highest position of education within the school. Additionally, the School of Medicine was housed in al-Mustansiriya Madrasa. The School of Medicine was led by a senior Muslim physician who was required to have ten students employed to him. There

14859-707: Was enthroned in 1316. He was faced with rebellion in 1318 by the Chagatayids and Qara'unas in Khorasan, and an invasion by the Golden Horde at the same time. An Anatolian emir, Irenchin, also rebelled. Irenchin was crushed by Chupan of the Taichiud in the Battle of Zanjan-Rud on 13 July 1319. Under the influence of Chupan, the Ilkhanate made peace with the Chagatais, who helped them crush the Chagatayid revolt, and

14986-520: Was extremely leisurely by Mongol standards. Setting out in October 1253, he spent the next years passing through Transoxiana and received homage from local rulers, including Arghun Aqa at Kish in November 1255; early the following year, he entered the Assassins' heartland of Kohistan . An advanced vanguard under the general Kitbuqa had taken numerous Ismaili fortresses, unsuccessfully besieged

15113-414: Was intent on total victory, even killing soldiers who attempted to surrender. The Caliph eventually surrendered the city on 10 February, and the Mongols began looting three days later. The total number of people who died is unknown, as it was likely increased by subsequent epidemics ; Hulegu later estimated the total at around 200,000. After calling an amnesty for the pillaging on 20 February, Hulegu executed

15240-640: Was just antagonistic bombast: the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt was hostile towards the caliph, while the Ayyubid minor rulers in Syria were focusing on their own survival. A further exchange of letters brought no progress save the caliph's concession of a small amount of tribute—al-Alqami had argued for sending large amounts, but the dawatdar argued that al-Alqami was trying to empty the treasury and win Hulegu's favour. Losing patience, Hulegu consulted his advisors on

15367-519: Was murdered in 1291. The Ilkhanate started crumbling under the reign of Arghun's brother, Gaykhatu . The majority of Mongols converted to Islam while the Mongol court remained Buddhist . Gaykhatu had to buy the support of his followers and as a result, ruined the realm's finances. His vizir Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani tried to bolster the state finances by adopting paper money from the Yuan dynasty , which remained largely unsuccessful. Gaykhatu also alienated

15494-432: Was of good quality but not as fine and as diverse as pottery from the preceding century. The type most commonly attributed to Ilkhanid Iran is the so-called "Sultanabad" ceramics. These were made of a softer white paste with a green or gray-brown slip . Bowls of this type were typically underglaze -painted with animal figures with a background of leaves. Kashan remained an important center of lustreware production until

15621-538: Was proclaimed khan in 1251 as part of the Toluid Revolution , which established the family of Genghis' youngest son Tolui as the most powerful figures in the Mongol Empire. Möngke resolved to send his younger brothers Kublai and Hulegu on massive military expeditions to subdue rebellious vassals and problematic enemies. While Kublai was sent to vassalize the Dali Kingdom and resume the war against

15748-728: Was soon invaded by the armies of Genghis Khan , first ruler of the Mongol Empire . After the Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire ended in late 1221, they did not return to the region until 1230. In that year, Chormaqan , a leading general under Genghis' successor Ögedei Khan , arrived in Azerbaijan to eliminate the Khwarazmian prince Jalal al-Din , who was killed the following year. Thereafter, Chormaqan began to establish Mongol hegemony in northwestern Iran and

15875-525: Was subsequent sieges like those conducted by Timur in 1393 and 1401 and by the Ottomans in 1534 that ensured the city's long-term marginalization. Ilkhanate The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire . It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids ( Persian : ایلخانان , romanized :  Īlkhānān ), and known to

16002-483: Was the first khan of the Ilkhanate. Immediately after his brother Möngke's accession as Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was appointed as administrator of North China, however in the following year, North China was assigned to Kublai and Hulagu tasked with conquering the Abbasid Caliphate . He was given a fifth of the entire Mongol army for the campaign and he took his sons Abaqa and Yoshmut along with him. Hulagu also took with him many Chinese scholars and astronomers, from whom

16129-577: Was wounded by an arrow during a parley. Both the dawatdar and the commander of Baghdad's garrison were surrendered to the Mongols during the negotiations, and were now put to death. On 7 February, a large number of unarmed soldiers and inhabitants emerged from the city, in the apparent hope that they would be spared and allowed to settle in Syria; instead, they were divided into groups and executed. With limited options, al-Musta'sim prepared to surrender. After sending out an embassy led by his son and heir Ahmed, who secured guarantees of safety for his family,

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