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63-655: The same deity is applied and also referred to as Inkhosi in Northern and Southern Ndebele . Mwari's reverence dates back to the age of the ancient king Monomotapa , of the Mutapa Kingdom on the Zambezi River . The name " Mwari " in Shona means the force behind Creation. The word itself signifies, resembles and is interpreted as "God", but only in the religious context. The furthering of this term's acceptance

126-652: A Nguni ethnic group native to Southern Africa . Significant populations of native speakers of the Northern Ndebele language (siNdebele) are found in Zimbabwe and as amaZulu in South Africa . They differ from Southern Ndebele people who speak isiNdebele of KwaNdebele . The Northern Ndebele language spoken by the Ndebele people of Zimbabwe is generally the same as the isiZulu language spoken by

189-450: A central place, such as a school or a borehole, where they would beat the civilians with sticks and force them to sing songs praising ZANU. These gatherings usually ended with public executions. Those killed included ex-ZIPRA guerrillas, ZAPU officials, and civilians perceived as dissidents Sotho-Tswana The Sotho-Tswana, also known as the Sotho or Basotho , although the term

252-625: A derogatory term used by the Swazi to refer to the Pedi in the 1400s. The Swazi called the Bapedi "Abashuntu" because they wore breechcloths made of animal skins tied in knots to cover their private parts. The word "Abashuntu" comes from the verb "uku shunta," which means "to make a knot." Despite the derogatory origins of the term, the Pedi adopted it with pride. They took the name with pride. Other Sotho-speaking groups who also wore breechcloths adopted

315-510: A dispute arose between two junior chiefs, the most senior chief closest to them would be invited to resolve it. Another important factor was that a senior chief or members of his clan could not be summoned to the Kgotla by a junior kgosi or clan member. An additional factor in this question of rank and seniority is that it was determined by birth and could not be changed; this means a chief born of minor status could not change his standing relative to

378-575: A dispute were to arise between any of the offshoot clans, like the Basia and Baphiti, then the Mmakau chief would be tasked with resolving it as their senior. The question of rank and seniority is one that is very important to the Sotho-Tswana. It determines a lot, from family relationships, to village matters to relationships between clans and between the different tribal groups. In a family situation,

441-467: A few of his elite warriors. The BSAC moved into the remains of koBulawayo, establishing a base, which they renamed KwaBulawayo, and then sent out patrols to find Lobengula. The most famous of these patrols, the Shangani Patrol , managed to find Lobengula, only to be trapped and wiped out in battle. The British were vastly outnumbered throughout the war, but their superior armaments, most notably

504-733: A nine-day battle, they destroyed eGabeni and other Matabele camps along the Marico River. Mzilikazi—realizing that the Ndebele, like the Sotho, did not stand a chance against the Boers, who were heavily armed with guns and rifles—decided to retreat with his regiments and loyalists from the Marico Valley. He moved to present-day Matabeleland South where the amaNdebele people overwhelmed the indigenous Rozvi people and Kalanga people —who were already crumbling due to leadership squabbles after

567-1087: A preference for dense and close settlements, as well as a tradition of large-scale building in stone. The group mainly consists of four clusters: the Southern Sotho (Sotho), the Northern Sotho (which consists of the Bapedi , the Balobedu and others), the Lozi , the Tswana and the Kgalakgadi . A fifth cluster is sometimes referred to as the Eastern Sotho and consists of the Pulana , Kgolokwe , Pai, and others. The Sotho-Tswana are said to contain some Khoe-San ancestry with levels as high as >20%. The Sotho-Tswana ethnic group derives its name from

630-631: A significant period of change for the Sotho-Tswana territories due to the expansion of the Nguni people, known as the Mfecane. This expansion prompted local groups to consolidate and form the first states within the region. Notable among these emerging states were the Basotho, Bapedi, and Tswana. One group of Basotho, known as the Kololo , migrated extensively to the north and established their own state in what

693-400: A totem, which is usually an animal. Totems are inherited from the father and thus pass like an English surname. The totem animal had traditionally had a status of veneration and avoidance; in particular, it was important not to eat one's totem. In modern Sotho-Tswana society, this is not as strictly observed. Each morafe or sechaba had its own totem. When naming a clan, the name of the founder or

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756-604: A treaty with Mzilikazi. Mzilikazi died on 9 September 1868, near Bulawayo. His son, Lobengula , succeeded him as king. Lobengula established a state that held sovereignty over the region between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers to the north and south and between the desert of the Makgadikgadi salt pans to the west and the Save River to the east. In exchange for wealth and arms, Lobengula granted several concessions to

819-646: Is now Zambia. During their rule, the language of the conquerors, Lozi, gained prominence in Zambia. Throughout the 19th century and into the middle of the 20th century, various African groups gradually migrated into the Sotho-Tswana territories, establishing settlements and states. Notable among these were the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The British Empire later laid claim to these territories, resulting in conflicts with local populations. Eventually,

882-557: Is now closely associated with the Southern Sotho peoples are a meta-ethnicity of Southern Africa . They are a large and diverse group of people who speak Sotho-Tswana languages . The group is predominantly found in Botswana , Lesotho , South Africa , and the western part of Zambia . Smaller groups can also be found in Namibia and Zimbabwe . The Sotho-Tswana people would have diversified into their current arrangement during

945-510: Is to distinguish between the different clans and the various sub-clans below them. This means distinguishing between clans that share the same totem, like the crocodile, but are distinct, such as the Bapo, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, and Bafokeng of Phokeng. In distinguishing between subclans, an example is the Bakgatla, who separated into Bakgatla ba Kgafela and Bakgatla ba ga Mmakau over who should lead

1008-602: Is when the Christian missionaries interpreted the Bible for the locals, in which they used the term "Mwari" instead of "God". The first official recognition of Mwari was by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe , whose most notable ruler was Monomotapa of the Kingdom of Mutapa . It is believed that this new addition to Shona religion was incorporated into Great Zimbabwe . Mwari was frequently approached via mediums at shrines at Matonjeni in

1071-779: The African National Congress of South Africa), and the South West Africa People's Organization ( SWAPO ) fighters was a major threat to Zambia's internal security. Because ZAPU's political strategy relied more heavily on negotiations than armed force, ZIPRA did not grow as quickly or elaborately as the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), but by 1979 it had an estimated 20,000 combatants, almost all based in camps around Lusaka, Zambia. The Gukurahundi ( Shona : "the early rain which washes away

1134-589: The British South Africa Company (BSAC) in 1889. As part of the agreement, BSAC would pay Lobengula 100 pounds a month, 1,000 rifles, 10,000 rounds of ammunition, and a riverboat. Lobengula had hoped that the Rudd Concession would diminish European incursions. However, as white settlers moved in, BSAC set up its government, made its laws, and set its sights on more mineral rights and territorial concessions. The social organization of

1197-600: The Maxim gun , proved too much for the Ndebele. In an attempt to reach a peace accord with the British, a band of Lobengula's warriors brought a large sum of gold to two BSAC soldiers to be delivered to their superiors. The two soldiers instead decided to keep the gold for themselves, and the incident went undiscovered for many months. Lobengula chose to escape; he was last seen crossing the Shangani River . In March 1896,

1260-619: The Mfecane ("the crushing" or "the scattering"). Mzilikazi's regiments moved north-west to the present-day provinces of Gauteng , Mpumalanga , North West , and Limpopo . A skilled military and political tactician, Mzilikazi attacked or subjugated the local tribes he found along the way, including the Khoi, Batswana, Bapedi, and the Ndebeles of Mpumalanga. In their land, between 1827 and 1832, Mzilikazi built three military strongholds. The largest

1323-851: The Ndebele or amaNdebele . The Khumalos were caught between the Ndwandwe led by Zwide and the Zulus led by Shaka . To please the Ndwandwe tribe, the Khumalo chief Mashobane married the daughter of the Ndwandwe chief Zwide and sired a son, Mzilikazi . The Ndwandwes were closely related to the Zulus and spoke the same language, Nguni , using different dialects. When Mashobane did not tell Zwide about patrolling Mthethwa amabutho (soldiers), Zwide had Mashobane killed. Thus his son, Mzilikazi, became

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1386-674: The Nguni prefix ama- ). British explorers—who were first informed of the existence of the Northern Ndebele people by the Sotho–Tswana communities they encountered on their trip north—would have been presented with two variations of the name: the Sotho–Tswana pronunciation ( Matebele ) and the Ndebele pronunciation ( Ndebele or amaNdebele ). Under British rule, they were officially known as the Matebele . They are now commonly known as

1449-518: The Sotho languages . The Northern Ndebele, specifically the Khumalo (amaNtungwa) people under Mzilikazi , were originally named Matebele in English. This name is common in older texts because it is the name the British first heard from the Sotho and Tswana peoples. In the early 19th century, the Ndebele invaded and lived in territories populated by Sotho – Tswana peoples, who used the plural prefix ma- for certain types of unfamiliar people (or

1512-595: The chaff before the spring rains" ) refers to the civil suppression by Zimbabwe's 5th Brigade in the predominantly Ndebele-speaking region of Matabeleland, most of whom were supporters of Joshua Nkomo and ZAPU. Robert Mugabe , then prime minister, had signed an agreement with North Korean President Kim Il Sung in October 1980 to have the North Korean military train a brigade for the Zimbabwean army. This

1575-645: The Barolong and Bakgatla have mainly been dismissed; for example, some subclans of Bakgatla, like the Bakgatla ba GaMmakau, acknowledge the Bahurutshe as senior, while the BaKagatla ba ga Kgafela do not. In the case of the Barolong, the Batlhaping, who are an offshoot of the Barolong, acknowledge the Bahurutshe to be senior to the Barolong, while the Barolong do not. The Bafokeng maintain that their split from

1638-466: The British defeated the indigenous African groups, and the areas under their control were divided among different territories. South Africa, Bechuanaland (now known as Botswana), Barotseland (now in Zambia), and Basutoland (now Lesotho) emerged as distinct geopolitical entities. This complex historical process shaped the cultural and political landscape of the Sotho-Tswana territories, contributing to

1701-406: The British, the most prominent of which was the 1888 Rudd Concession , which permitted British mining and colonisation of Zimbabwe and prohibited all Boer settlement in the country. This concession gave Cecil Rhodes exclusive mineral rights in much of the lands east of his main territory. As gold was already known to exist in that area, the concession enabled Rhodes to obtain a royal charter to form

1764-555: The Fifth Brigade lasted until September 1982, when Minister Sekeramayi announced training was complete. The first commander of the Fifth Brigade was Colonel Perrance Shiri . The Fifth Brigade differed from all other Zimbabwean army units in that it was directly subordinate to the prime minister's office and not integrated into the regular army command structures. Their codes, uniforms, radios, and equipment were incompatible with other army units. Their most distinguishing feature in

1827-511: The Marico River, and eGabeni (Kapain), where they also built a sizeable settlement. During the Great Trek of 1836–1838, voortrekkers (Boers) arrived in Transvaal and found Mzilikazi the king of the region, and a threat to their advancement. They fought with him, losing in the first battle. In the second battle in 1837, the Boers (led by Potgieter, Maritz, and Uys) launched another attack on Mzilikazi's military stronghold at eGabeni at dawn. In

1890-684: The Matebele revolted against the authority of the BSAC in what is now celebrated in Mthwakazi as the First War of Independence. After a year of drought and cattle sickness, Mlimo, the Matebele spiritual leader, is credited with fomenting much of the anger that led to this confrontation. An estimated 50,000 Matebele retreated into their stronghold of the Matobo Hills near KwaBulawayo, which became

1953-523: The Matebele stronghold and persuaded the leaders to lay down their arms. This final uprising thus ended in October 1897; Matebeleland and Mashonaland were later renamed Rhodesia . In 1963 a subset of the main rebel group, Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), split off and formed the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). Though these groups had a common origin, they gradually grew apart, with ZANU mainly recruiting from

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2016-608: The Matopo Hills of Zimbabwe. In 1890, Christian missionaries began to translate the Bible into Shona. They translated the name for the biblical God as Mwari. Dora Rudo Mbuwayesango calls this 'in reality a religious usurpation of the Shona. ... The depictions of God in Shona oral traditions were designated as primitive and uncivilized, and so the biblical depiction of God was elevated as the civilized and authentic way of talking about

2079-477: The Northern Ndebele kingdom. Mzilikazi called his new nation 'Mthwakazi', a Zulu word which means 'something which became big at conception' ( Zulu : into ethe ithwasa yabankulu ). Europeans called the territory 'Matebeleland'. Mzilikazi organized this ethnically diverse nation into a militaristic system of regimental towns and established his capital at Bulawayo . In 1852, the Boer government in Transvaal made

2142-818: The Northern Ndebele language people was rigidly controlled by rules of service and hierarchy inherited from Shaka's reforms among the Zulu. Other subject peoples, such as in Mashonaland , were treated harshly; their lives and property were subject to the King's control and could be disrupted at any time by raids or exactions of tribute. This scene was presented to the British Pioneer Column when they arrived in Mashonaland in 1890. In August 1893, Lobengula sent warriors to Fort Victoria to raid cattle from

2205-511: The Shona deity, Mwari'. Mwari is seen as a kind and loving God. Mwari is not only the God of creation, but also of land fertility and blessing rains. Mwari is the one who controls the forces of Earth, from the fortune of journeys to social and political events. Though the Shona and the Ndebele often pray to Mwari alone, it is also very common for the use of spirit mediums to be employed. Although missionary Bible translations transcribed Mwari as male,

2268-633: The Shona people. Although Lobengula's armed warriors won, the British South Africa Company (BSAC) took the opportunity to attack Lobengula in the guise of protecting the Shona. During this confrontation, a fight broke out between BSAC and Matebele, beginning the First Matebele War. Hoping for a quick victory, Leander Starr Jameson sent his BSAC forces to attack the capital koBulawayo and capture Lobengula. Rather than fight, Lobengula burned down his capital and fled with

2331-593: The Shona regions and ZAPU mainly recruiting from Ndebele regions. The Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) was a primarily-Ndebele anti-government force, led by Joshua Nkomo and ZAPU. ZIPRA trained and planned their missions in Zambian bases; however, this was not always with full Zambian government support. By 1979, the combination of the ZIPRA forces based in Zambia, the Umkhonto we Sizwe (the armed wing of

2394-481: The Shona understood Mwari as not having a gender (or neither male and female). It was a belief amongst the Shona people that no one had the right or authority to call unto Mwari directly without observing the protocol of airing out grievances or thanksgiving supplications to the deity through spirit mediums (who were possessed by ancestral and other spirits). In northern Zimbabwe, Mwari was contacted through spirit mediums or spirits; in other parts of Zimbabwe, he spoke to

2457-399: The Zulu people of South Africa with a few pronunciation and word meaning differences. Northern Ndebele spoken in Zimbabwe and Southern Ndebele (or Transvaal Ndebele) spoken in South Africa are separate but related languages with some degree of mutual intelligibility, although the former is more closely related to Zulu . Southern Ndebele, while maintaining its Nguni roots, has been influenced by

2520-535: The animal they venerate could be used. An example is the Bahurutshe, named after the founder Mohurutshe; alternatively, they can also be called Batshweneng after the tshwene (baboon), which they venerate; similarly, Batlhako after the founder; or Batloung after the totem. For some clans, the name of the founder and their totem are the same, like the Bakwena and Bataung, where the founders were named Kwena (crocodile) and Tau (lion), respectively. An important distinction that needs to be made when discussing Sotho-Tswana clans

2583-458: The cattle and land to Shaka. The history of the Ndebele of Zimbabwe began through that refusal and attempt to create a rival nation. Mzilikazi and his allies continued on to raid and occupy the chiefdoms of the Sotho people and the Southern Ndebele , who had been significantly weakened by the Dutch–Afrikaner settlers (Boers) from the Cape Colonies. This happened during a turbulent period of civil conflict in Nguni and Sotho–Tswana history, known as

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2646-419: The clan. One faction defied the usual tradition of male leaders and acknowledged the female, Mmakau, as their kgosi. Those who supported Kgafela then broke away. Further offshoots from the Bakgatla are the Bakgatla ba Mmanaana, Bakgatla ba Mmakau, and Bakgatla ba Motsha, who all have the kgabo as their totem. The Bakgatla ba Mmakau would later give rise to Bapedi, BaKholokoe, Batlokwa, BaPhuti and Basia clans If

2709-407: The core Sotho-Tswana body predated the split between Mohurutshe and Kwena, and therefore they are equal in status to the Bahurutshe, if not senior. These disputes over seniority and rank were driven by the quest for benefits and independence, a senior kgosi could demand a payment of tribute from a junior chief, and they could also summon a junior chief or member of his clan to kgotla for a hearing. If

2772-484: The course of the 2nd millennium, but they retain a number of linguistic and cultural characteristics that distinguish them from other Bantu-speakers of southern Africa. These are features such as totemism / diboko a pre-emptive right of men to marry their maternal cousins, and an architectural style characterized by a round hut with a conical thatch roof supported by wooden pillars on the outside. Other major distinguishing features included their dress of skin cloaks and

2835-441: The death of Changamire Dombo —and eventually carved out a home. During the migration, numerous raided indigenous clans and individuals (such as the Southern Ndebele , Swazi , Sotho–Tswana, and Rozvi ethnic groups) were absorbed into the Ndebele tribe, adopting the Ndebele language and culture. When Europeans arrived in the area, they found Mzilikazi settled with his people. Thus, they called the area Matabeleland , which encompasses

2898-407: The field was their red berets . After several ZIPRA forces in Lupane and Matopos refused their tools, the Fifth Brigade conducted public executions of ex-ZIPRA soldiers, families, and supporters in the Lupane , Tsholotsho , and Matobo districts. Victims were often forced to re-initiation camps, but those who refused were executed and buried in mass graves. The initial number of executed Ndebeles

2961-433: The formation of diverse states and the interaction between various ethnic groups. The term Basotho can be used to refer to the following: The term Tswana can be used to refer to one of the following: The term Northern Sotho can be used to refer to the following: The term Eastern Sotho can be used to refer to the following: The term Lozi can be used to refer to the following: In Sotho-Tswana society, each member has

3024-436: The issue of rank determines when a son will undergo initiation, or receive an inheritance. A further distinction is also made between the senior wife and the junior wife if a man is in a polygamous marriage. As the Sotho-Tswana lived in large villages, seniority and rank also played a part here. The chief's homestead is situated at the center of the village, and thereafter the other citizens are grouped according to rank, with

3087-434: The khoi people who in Sesotho(Southern Sotho) are known as Baroa. By the 15th century, the Sotho-Tswana people had begun to disperse throughout the southern Transvaal highveld . Over the next few centuries, the Sotho-Tswana people continued to disperse and form new chiefdoms. Unlike the Nguni people, who predominantly settled in coastal areas, the Sotho-Tswana found their home in the highlands of South Africa, specifically in

3150-508: The leader of the Khumalo. Mzilikazi immediately mistrusted his grandfather, Zwide, and took soldiers to join Shaka. Shaka was overjoyed because the Khumalos would be helpful to spy on Zwide and the Ndwandwes. After a few battles, Shaka gave Mzilikazi the extraordinary honour of being chief of the Khumalos and remaining semi-independent from the Zulu, if Zwide could be defeated. This caused immense jealousy among Shaka's older allies, but as warriors, none realized their equal in Mzilikazi. When Zwide

3213-410: The most junior members living the furthest from the village center. Inter and intra-clan relationships have been a question that has occupied the Sotho-Tswana since the split that occurred between the followers of Mohurutshe and Kwena. While it is generally accepted that the Hurutshe are the senior clan, some of the other clans have disputed this, mainly the Bafokeng, Barolong, and Bakgatla. The claims of

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3276-469: The name of their leader as their identity, but naturally, in essence, every Batho/Bantu people is a Mosotho. The term Basotho is now used as a term of pride and unity for the Sotho people. It is a reminder of their shared history and culture and their determination to resist oppression. The ethnonym Batswana is thought to be an anantonym that comes from the meaning of the Sotho-Tswana word "tswa", which means "to come out of". The name would be derived from

3339-434: The people via an oracle . It was also believed that anyone who defied this spiritual law would develop leprosy as the name of the ineffable and unknowable God was believed to be holy and beyond everything. Northern Ndebele people The Northern Ndebele people ( / ˌ ɛ n d ə ˈ b ɛ l i , - ˈ b iː l i , - l eɪ / ; EN -də- BE(E)L -ee, -⁠ay ; Northern Ndebele : amaNdebele ) are

3402-462: The people who belong to the various Sotho and Tswana clans that live in southern Africa. Historically, all members of the group were referred to as Sothos; the name is now exclusively applied to speakers of Southern Sotho who live mainly in Lesotho and the Free State province in South Africa, while Northern Sotho is reserved for Sotho speakers that inhabit north-eastern South Africa, predominantly in Limpopo . The term Basotho may have originated as

3465-421: The region known as the Highveld. This region is situated between the coastal lowlands to the east and south and the Kalahari Desert to the west. The Sotho-Tswana predominantly inhabited the highlands and steppes, resulting in a relatively lower population density than the Nguni. They were also less reliant on agriculture, instead practicing a mixed economy of farming, herding, and hunting. The 19th century marked

3528-445: The scene of the fiercest fighting against the white settler patrols, led by legendary military figures such as Frederick Russell Burnham , Robert Baden-Powell , and Frederick Selous . Hundreds of white settlers and uncounted Matebele and Mashona were killed over the next year and a half. The Matebele military defiance ended only when Burnham found and assassinated Mlimo . Upon learning of Mlimo's death, Rhodes boldly walked unarmed into

3591-487: The term as well, and it eventually came to be used to refer to all Sotho people. The Basotho name is thought to be derived from the word "sootho", "brown" , which means the ones with dark/brown melanin. "Ba sootho" directly translates to "They are brown". The use of the word has always been part of the vocabulary of the Sotho-Tswana nation. The word became ascribed to a specific people due to regional conflicts: different Bantu clans split from their ancestor clans and took

3654-423: The west and southwest region of Zimbabwe. Mzilikazi who reigned from 1823, chose a new headquarters on the western edge of the central plateau of modern-day Zimbabwe , leading some 20,000 Ndebele, descendants of the Nguni and Sotho of South Africa. He had invaded the Rozvi state and raided some of the Rozvi people (mostly women); the rest became satellite farming communities and were forced to pay tribute to

3717-399: The word "Ba ba tswang" eventually shortened to the word Batswana meaning "The Separatists" or alternatively "the people who cannot hold together". One of the chief characteristics of the Sotho-Tswana clans is their tendency to break up and hive off. The Sotho-Tswana are a cultural and ethnic group whose ancestors arrived in Botswana and South Africa around 200–500 AD, they are descendents of

3780-440: Was Kungwini , situated at the foot of the Wonderboom Mountains on the Apies River, just north of present-day Pretoria . Another was Dinaneni, north of the Hartbeespoort Dam , while the third was Hlahlandlela in the territory of the Fokeng near Rustenburg . Mzilikazi and his allies also conquered and occupied the BaHurutshe , whose capital, Mosega, became their military headquarters. They built military strongholds at Tshwenyane,

3843-487: Was 2,800 in 1987; however, some recent politicians estimate 20,000. The largest number of dead in a single killing occurred on 5 March 1983, when 62 young men were shot on the banks of the Cewale River, Lupane; seven survived with gunshot wounds, the other 55 died. The Fifth Brigade also killed large groups of people by burning them alive in huts, as they did in Tsholotsho and Lupane. They routinely rounded up dozens, or even hundreds, of civilians and marched them at gunpoint to

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3906-455: Was defeated, Shaka acknowledged Mzilikazi's essential contributions of intelligence. Shaka himself placed the plumes on Mzilikazi's head and presented him with one of two ivory axes, the other being kept by Shaka. The Khumalos returned in peace to their ancestral homeland. This peace lasted until Shaka asked Mzilikazi to punish a tribe to the north of the Khumalo, belonging to Raninsi a Sotho. After defeating Raninsi, Mzilikazi refused to hand over

3969-399: Was soon after Mugabe had announced the need for a militia to "combat malcontents." Mugabe replied by saying Matabeleland dissidents should "watch out", announcing the brigade would be called "Gukurahundi". This brigade was named the Fifth Brigade, and its members were drawn from 3,500 ex-ZANLA troops at Tongogara Assembly Point, named after Josiah Tongogara , the ZANLA general. The training of

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