66-406: [REDACTED] National Unity Government (since 2021) Bombings and attacks Coup d'états Protests Anti-Muslim violence Related topics Insurgencies have been ongoing in Myanmar since 1948, when the country, then known as Burma, gained independence from the United Kingdom. It has largely been an ethnic conflict , with ethnic armed groups fighting Myanmar's armed forces,
132-666: A federal system with fair Karen representation in the government. After three successive parliamentary governments governed Myanmar, the Tatmadaw, led by General Ne Win , enacted a coup d'état on 2 March 1962 , which ousted the parliamentary government and replaced it with a military junta . Accusations of severe human rights abuses and violations followed afterwards, and the cabinet of the parliamentary government and political leaders of ethnic minority groups were arrested and detained without trial. Around this period, other ethnic minority groups began forming larger rebel factions, such as
198-528: A 10-point policy paper on China, describing it as "a specifically important country, not only for close, profound historical ties between the two countries but also for China’s status as a global superpower". It also pledged support the one-China principle and expand economic ties. In November 2021 and December 2023, the Inter-Parliamentary Union affirmed that the NUG's parent organisation,
264-795: A desperate effort to replenish manpower via conscription. The Mizo people of Mizoram , India, and the Chin people of Myanmar, as well as the Kuki people , are all Zo people who share a common culture and history. In 1960, the Chin Liberation Army was founded by Tun Kho Pum Baite to unify the Chin-inhabited areas, while the Mizo National Front (MNF) fought for Mizo independence. The Chin National Army (CNF)
330-556: A group of elected lawmakers and members of parliament ousted in the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état . The European Parliament has recognized the NUG as the legitimate government of Myanmar. It includes representatives of the National League for Democracy (the deposed ruling party of former state counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi ), ethnic minority insurgent groups , and various minor parties . The State Administration Council (SAC)—the country's ruling military junta —has declared
396-606: A parallel digital currency system. In May 2022, the NUG raised $ 10 million from the sale of Min Aung Hlaing's Yangon home on Inya Lake Road . In October 2022, the NUG raised $ 9.3 million USD during an auction of land in Mandalay's Patheingyi Township illegally seized by the military. In January 2023, the NUG raised $ 10 million in 18 hours, after a pre-sale of apartments on military-owned land in Yangon. In February 2023,
462-523: A protest from SAC. On 20 September 2022, Malaysia became the first ASEAN member state to publicly engage with the competing NUG. The NUG has called on the People's Defence Force to not target Chinese projects. Additionally, it reportedly sent congratulatory letters to Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping after the 20th CCP National Congress in October 2022. In January 2024, it published
528-471: A series of programmes, including a satirical show called People's Voice TV, and news reports. On 5 May 2021, the NUG announced the formation of the People's Defense Force as its armed wing to launch an armed revolution against the military junta, which designated it a terrorist organization on 8 May. On 7 September 2021, the NUG announced the launch of a defensive war against the military junta, and urged
594-645: A source of conflict, as Kachin people have historically been predominantly Christian, while the majority Bamar people have been predominantly Buddhist . National Unity Government of Myanmar The National Unity Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar ( Burmese : အမျိုးသားညီညွတ်ရေး အစိုးရ ; abbreviated NUG ) is a Myanmar government in exile formed by the Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (CRPH),
660-607: The 8888 Uprising in 1988, which was violently suppressed by the military. Following the uprising, the military established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), later renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). The SPDC faced insurgencies and civil unrest, including the rise of the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) in the 2010s. The situation escalated further with
726-870: The Arakan Army (AA), the Kachin Independence Army (KIA), the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA) and the Ta'ang National Liberation Army (TNLA)— attacked towns and border posts along the China–Myanmar border in Muse Township , northern Shan State. The insurgents captured the town of Mong Ko on 25 November 2016 and maintained control of it until they withdrew from the town on 4 December 2016 to avoid civilian casualties from airstrikes by
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#1732773400137792-730: The Bamar ethnic majority and the country's many ethnic minorities. Following Burma's independence from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948, the two largest opposition groups in the country were the communists, led by the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), and the Karen nationalists, led by the Karen National Union (KNU). Initially there was calm during the transitional period after independence, but on 2 April 1948,
858-654: The Burma Independence Army (BIA) to fight against the Allies. Aung San led the State of Burma , switching allegiance to the Allies in mid-1944. Post-war negotiations led to Burma's independence in 1948, but tensions arose as the Panglong Agreement promising autonomy to ethnic minorities, was not honored after Aung San's assassination. This period saw the rise of the Communist Party of Burma and
924-476: The Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw , is the legitimate interlocutor for Myanmar and its members are able to participate in the official business of the IPU as observers. In May 2022, the NUG announced it had raised $ 42 million USD from fundraising activities, with the majority of revenues spent on weapons and support for civil servants on strike. It has launched a number of successful initiatives, including
990-629: The Committee Representing the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (CRPH), has proposed the formation of a "federal armed force" to combat the military. One of the first instances of armed resistance by protesters occurred in and around the town of Kalay , Sagaing Region . After the Tatmadaw raided a protest camp in Kalay on 28 March 2021, protesters fought back with hunting rifles and homemade firearms. Several insurgent groups, notably
1056-749: The Kachin Hills in Kachin State . Kachin regular soldiers previously formed a significant part of the Myanmar Army; however, after Ne Win's regime seized power in 1962, many Kachin soldiers defected from the military and reorganised with already active Kachin insurgents to form the Kachin Independence Army (KIA), under the Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO). Religious tensions have also been
1122-593: The Kachin Independence Army , in response to the new government's refusal to adopt a federal system. Many insurgent groups, communist and ethnonationalist alike, became increasingly receptive of the Maoist concept of a " people's war " after failed peace talks with Ne Win's government in 1963. The CPB maintained close relations with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and replicated China's Cultural Revolution . The CPB's imitation of their Chinese allies
1188-458: The Karen National Union (KNU). In 1962, General Ne Win led a coup, establishing a military junta and refusing to adopt a federal system, leading to increased insurgencies. The Communist Party of Burma (CPB) and various ethnic groups, including the Kachin Independence Army and Karen National Liberation Army , took up arms against the government. Ne Win's regime faced internal dissent and growing insurgencies throughout his rule, culminating in
1254-713: The Myanmar Air Force . On 15 August 2019, Northern Alliance insurgents attacked a military college in Nawnghkio Township , killing 15. Further clashes occurred in the following days, with Myanmar's military warning there could be a "full-scale war" in Shan State if the Northern Alliance did not halt their attacks. On the early morning of 1 February 2021, the civilian government led by the NLD
1320-695: The National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma , as an ambassador to ASEAN. On 26 April 2022, Lwin Ko Latt , the Minister of Home Affairs and Immigration, announced the formation of the Bureau of Special Intelligence . The announcement also mentioned that due to arbitrary arrests, torture, killings, and other acts by the SAC within the country through the exercise of people's power,
1386-798: The National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN). These groups frequently cross into India via the porous border. In June 2019, Tatmadaw troops, in coordination with the Indian Army, carried out operations against the NSCN headquarters in Taga , in the Naga Self-Administered Zone of Sagaing Region. The Kachin people are a major ethnic minority in Myanmar who mainly inhabit the mountainous northern regions of
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#17327734001371452-469: The Panglong Agreement was reached between them. The agreement promised full autonomy for the areas inhabited by the three ethnic minorities, with an option to secede from Burma ten years after independence. However, Aung San was assassinated shortly afterwards, and the Panglong Agreement was not honoured by the post-independence government under U Nu . This further strained relations between
1518-529: The Tatmadaw , for self-determination . Despite numerous ceasefires and the creation of autonomous self-administered zones in 2008, armed groups continue to call for independence, increased autonomy , or federalisation . It is the world's longest ongoing civil war, spanning almost eight decades. In 1940, during World War II, Burmese intellectuals formed the Thirty Comrades , who later established
1584-715: The UAE , South Korea, and Singapore. Panglong Agreement The Panglong Agreement ( Burmese : ပင်လုံစာချုပ် [pɪ̀ɰ̃ lòʊɰ̃ sà dʑoʊʔ] ) was reached in Panglong, Southern Shan State , between the Burmese government under Aung San and the Shan , Kachin , and Chin peoples on 12 February 1947. The agreement accepted "full autonomy in internal administration for the Frontier Areas" in principle and envisioned
1650-556: The 1 February 2021 military coup, a Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (the Myanmar legislature) was created by members of the National League for Democracy (NLD) who had been elected as lawmakers in the 2020 general election. It claimed to be the legitimate legislative authority for Myanmar. It named a set of office-holders of the National Unity Government on 16 April, which included members of
1716-461: The 2021 military coup, led by Min Aung Hlaing , which deposed the civilian government and led to widespread protests and renewed insurgencies, particularly in ethnic minority regions like Kachin State , Kayah State , and Kayin State . In 1940, during World War II , a group of young Burmese intellectuals left for Japan to receive military training in preparation for an anti-colonial struggle against
1782-584: The American government. On 17 September 2023, the NUG's Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation (MONREC) stated it dissolved the Myanmar Gems and Jewellery Entrepreneurs Association (MGJEA) for providing tax revenue to the SAC . In April 2024, a significant blow to the Myanmar junta, an anti-army alliance launched drone strikes on military targets in the capital, Naypyitaw. NUG confirmed
1848-651: The British. This group came to be known as the Thirty Comrades , and upon returning to Burma in 1941 they established the Burma Independence Army (BIA) to fight against the Allies. Upon their capture of Rangoon in 1942, the Japanese established a puppet state , the State of Burma , and reorganised the BIA as its armed forces, the Burma National Army (BNA). Aung San , the leader of the State of Burma and one of
1914-457: The Bureau of Special Intelligence was set up to build national security that would ensure the social security and socio-economic development of the people while preventing violence. On 7 September 2022, NUG acting president Duwa Lashi La stated that the regime had lost control of half of the country, noting that NUG had formed over 300 PDF battalions, and township public defence forces in 250 of
1980-569: The Burmese government invited 15 insurgent groups to negotiate a " Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement ". The draft was agreed upon by a majority of the invited parties on 31 March 2015, and the agreement was signed by Burmese president Thein Sein and the leaders of eight insurgent groups on 15 October 2015. In Shan State, the military continued to engage the MNDAA during the 2015 Kokang offensive . After
2046-740: The CPB fired the first shots of the conflict in Paukkongyi, Pegu Region (present-day Bago Region ). At its peak, the CPB had 15,000 fighters in 1949. During the post-independence period, the KNU favoured an independent state , governed by the Karen people. The proposed state would have encompassed the territories of Karen State and Karenni State (present-day Kayin State and Kayah State ), in Lower Burma (Outer Myanmar). The KNU has since shifted their focus from full independence to regional autonomy , under
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2112-671: The Five-Point Consensus with respect to the Myanmar situation in April 2021, the military-led State Administration Council has not honoured its commitment to the peace plan. ASEAN member states, particularly Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia, have publicly expressed their dissatisfaction with SAC's continued intransigence. In May 2022, Malaysia's foreign minister, Saifuddin Abdullah , publicly called on ASEAN member states to begin informally engaging NUG. The suggestion prompted
2178-557: The KNU's armed wing, the Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA). The clashes resulted in the displacement of hundreds of thousands of civilians in Kayin State. According to one estimate, approximately half a million people were displaced due to fighting between government forces and the KNU, and the forcible relocation of villages by the government. In 2007, hundreds of thousands of monks protested against
2244-849: The Kachin Independence Army and the Karen National Liberation Army, have also resumed or escalated their attacks against the Tatmadaw in response to the coup. Seven signatories of the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement announced on 4 April 2021 that they had decided to join the National Unity Government , including the All Burma Student Democratic Front and the Karen National Union. Some of the groups have resumed hostilities towards
2310-441: The Karenni People's Defence Force (KPDF) in Kayah State also clashed with the Tatmadaw near the state capital of Loikaw . The Communist Party of Burma rearmed itself and announced the creation of its new armed wing, the People's Liberation Army, in late 2021. ACLED estimated that 11,000 people had been killed from February to December 2021. On 10 February 2024, the SAC activated the SPDC-era People's Military Service Law in
2376-430: The NLD attempted to make amendments to the constitution, in response to a clause that made Aung San Suu Kyi ineligible to become President of Myanmar if her party won an election. These amendments however, were rejected. In 2013, large anti-Muslim riots flared up in various cities across Myanmar. The violence coincided with the rise of the Buddhist nationalist 969 Movement , led by Sayadaw U Wirathu . In early 2015,
2442-418: The NLD, other parties and independents. The NUG immediately sought international recognition as the government of Myanmar and gained much support from the people of Myanmar . When the NUG was announced, its designated minister for home affairs and immigration, Lwin Ko Latt , stated that he expected recognition by several countries soon. The International Trade Union Confederation called for recognition of
2508-420: The NUG by governments and the United Nations , and the ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights, a group of pro-human rights lawmakers within ASEAN countries, called on ASEAN to invite to the ASEAN Leaders Meeting on 24 April the NUG rather than representatives of the military junta. In April 2021, the NUG established Public Voice Television (PVTV) as a media outlet for the NUG, the CRPH, and NUCC. PVTV hosts
2574-525: The NUG had established representative offices in the United States , United Kingdom , Norway , France , Czech Republic , Australia , and South Korea . On 1 February 2022, the Foreign Affairs Ministry of the NUG appointed Saw Ba Hla Thein as the first representative to Japan . Although the NUG is widely described as a government-in-exile , it has not declared a temporary capital in another country or in Myanmar, and instead conducts its operations remotely and from hiding within Myanmar. Following
2640-412: The NUG illegal and a terrorist organization, while the NUG designated the Tatmadaw and its affiliated organizations as terrorist organizations under Section 3 of Myanmar’s Counter-Terrorism Law. In May 2021, the NUG announced the formation of a " People's Defense Force ", and in September the launch of a "defensive war" and nationwide revolution against the military junta. As of September 2021,
2706-416: The NUG raised $ 4 million after an entrepreneur bought rights to a gem mine in Mogok Township . Since July 2024, People's Defense Force units based in Loikaw Township and Ywangan Township are raising funds via the sale of Rebels -branded ( Burmese : သူပုန် ; MLCTS : suupone: ) green tea. The tea is sold in Burmese-diaspora owned stores and restaurants in Thailand, the United Kingdom, Australia,
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2772-471: The Republic of the Union of Myanmar and Aung San Suu Kyi as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On 5 October 2021, the French Senate unanimously passed a resolution to formally recognize the NUG as the official government of Myanmar, and sent it to the National Assembly for passage. On 7 October 2021, the European Parliament adopted a resolution that recognizes the CRPH and the NUG as the only legitimate representatives of Myanmar. Since ASEAN implemented
2838-416: The Tatmadaw to begin massive "clearance operations" in northern Rakhine State, which intensified following a second large-scale attack by ARSA on 25 August 2017. The subsequent violence has sparked international outcry and was described as an ethnic cleansing by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. In late November 2016, the Northern Alliance —which consists of four insurgent groups ,
2904-406: The Thirty Comrades, became increasingly sceptical of Japan's ability to win the war as time progressed, and in mid-1944 he decided to switch sides. Japanese forces capitulated by July 1945, and the British began to negotiate Burma's independence with Aung San and other prominent Burmese leaders. In the lead up to Burmese independence, Aung San negotiated with Chin , Kachin , and Shan leaders, and
2970-414: The US prevented the Burmese military's representatives from attending the UNGA session, effectively forestalling a decision to replace Kyaw Moe Tun , the incumbent Permanent Representative of Myanmar who represents the NUG. As of 12 April 2024, the United Nations list of Heads of State, Heads of Government, and Ministers for Foreign Affairs of all Member States continues to list Win Myint as President of
3036-584: The area and forcing 30,000 refugees to flee to neighbouring Yunnan , China. In 2010, Tatmadaw forces clashed violently with DKBA-5 , resulting in nearly 10,000 refugees fleeing to Thailand to escape the violent conflict. The government introduced a new constitution in 2008 and instigated a period of political reforms from 2011 to 2015 , with thousands of political prisoners being released, including Aung San Suu Kyi. The 2008 constitution created five self-administered zones and one self-administered division for six ethnic minority groups. In November 2014,
3102-401: The citizens to revolt against the junta in every corner of the country. On 6 October 2021, Malaysia's foreign minister Saifuddin Abdullah warned the Burmese military it was prepared to hold official talks with the NUG if the military did not cooperate with the terms of ASEAN's five-point consensus. On 24 October, the Foreign Affairs Ministry appointed Bo Hla Tint, who served as a minister in
3168-436: The country under a one-party system . Under Ne Win's 26-year dictatorship , Myanmar became an isolated hermit kingdom and one of the least developed countries in the world. In 1988, nationwide student protests resulted in the BSPP and Ne Win being ousted and replaced with a new military regime, the State Peace and Development Council . On 12 March 1988, students began demonstrating in Rangoon (present-day Yangon) against
3234-449: The country's largest insurgent groups which remained actively hostile. Critics further argued that Myanmar's constitution granted too much power to the military, and was preventing the country from achieving peace and meaningful democratic reforms. On 9 October 2016, the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) launched its first attack on Burmese border posts along the Bangladesh–Myanmar border , killing nine border officers. This prompted
3300-434: The country's largest opposition party, the National League for Democracy (NLD). The military junta arranged a general election in 1990 to elect members of a parliament-sized constitutional committee which would draft a new constitution. The NLD won a supermajority of the seats, but the military junta, surprised by the outcome, refused to recognise the results and placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest . After voiding
3366-445: The country's townships, while approximately 1,500 resistance fighers had died since the coup. On 6 February 2023, NUG stated that it had restored internet access in at least 15 townships where the junta had cut off access since 2021. NUG spokesman Nay Phone Latt also added that they were providing access without using the junta's infrastructure. On 13 February, the NUG opened an official liaison office in Washington, DC to engage with
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#17327734001373432-443: The creation of a Kachin State by the Constituent Assembly. It continued the financial relations established between the Shan states and the Burmese federal government, and envisioned similar arrangements for the Kachin Hills and the Chin Hills . The anniversary of this agreement is celebrated annually as Union Day . Aung Zan Wai , Pe Khin , Bo Hmu Aung , Sir Maung Gyi , Dr. Sein Mya Maung , Myoma U Than Kywe were among
3498-435: The end of political reforms in 2015, the government began hosting a number of peace conferences, including the Union Peace Conference – 21st Century Panglong . The first session of the conference was held in 2016, with three follow-up sessions held in 2017, 2018, and 2020. The conference was criticised by opposition groups, including some attendees, for not addressing the main proposals made by ceasefire groups, and for excluding
3564-561: The international community to recognise NUG's legitimacy. In September 2021, in the lead up to the 76th United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), the UN had been expected to make a formal decision on recognizing the legitimate government of Myanmar. Ahead of the UNGA, major global labour unions issued a statement calling for a global day of action for Myanmar, specifically calling on international governments to recognise NUG and for humanitarian assistance to be provided solely through NUG channels. A behind-the-scenes compromise between China and
3630-493: The junta government. The Chinland Defence Force began its armed resistance in Mindat and Hakha , Chin State, on 26 April 2021. On 5 May 2021, the National Unity Government declared the formation of an armed wing, the People's Defence Force (PDF) , to protect its supporters from military junta attacks and as a first step towards a Federal Union Army. It clashed with the Tatmadaw in the town of Muse on 23 May, killing at least 13 members of Myanmar's security forces. Members of
3696-404: The military junta's rule, and called for free elections , minority rights and the release of political prisoners in an event now known as the Saffron Revolution . The protest originally began in response to the government's removal of price subsidies for compressed natural gas . The Tatmadaw attacked Kokang in 2009, causing the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army to lose control of
3762-407: The protests at the hands of the military. According to The Economist , over 3,000 people were killed in the demonstrations. Despite its violent suppression of the 8888 Uprising, the new military junta agreed to ceasefire agreements with certain insurgent groups after the demonstrations ceased. Aung San Suu Kyi emerged from the 8888 Uprising as a symbol of Myanmar's pro-democracy movement, leading
3828-436: The release of those arrested in the coup, and the restoration of the civilian government. Anti-coup protesters have armed themselves with slingshots, molotov cocktails, and makeshift shields. In late March 2021, it was reported that dozens of protesters had travelled to Myanmar's border areas to train under one of the country's many insurgent groups, elevating the risk of a countrywide civil war. The civilian government-in-exile,
3894-434: The results of the 1990 election, the military junta consolidated its rule over Myanmar. The SLORC was abolished in 1997 and replaced with the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC), which consisted of eleven senior military officers. In the 1990s, the Tatmadaw severely weakened ethnic insurgent groups, destroying most of their bases and strongholds. In 2006, the Tatmadaw launched a large-scale military offensive against
3960-412: The sale of Spring Revolution treasury bonds, an online lottery, and the sale of military-linked land and properties. Most NUG donors live abroad, and limited evidence suggests the Burmese diaspora in Singapore is the primary source of funding. The NUG has also encouraged Burmese-based companies and taxpayers to redirect taxes to the NUG, instead of the military regime. The NUG has also launched NUGPay,
4026-471: The strikes, causing casualties. The attack targeted the airport compound, about 25km southwest of military headquarters. In September 2024, the Indian Council of World Affairs invited representatives of the NUG, Arakan Army , Chin National Front , and Kachin Independence Army to participate in a mid-November seminar on "Constitutionalism and Federalism." In April 2021, Building and Wood Workers' International announced its support of NUG and called for
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#17327734001374092-601: The totalitarian rule of Ne Win and his Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). The protests quickly spread across the country, and the BSPP government was eventually pressured into adopting a multi-party system. However, the BSPP government was overthrown in a military coup d'état on 18 September 1988. The military then established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) and violently cracked down on protesters, ending all demonstrations by 21 September 1988. Authorities in Myanmar claimed that around 350 people were killed, while opposition groups claimed thousands died in
4158-407: Was overthrown in a military coup d'état , and the Tatmadaw's commander-in-chief, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing , became the head of state. Aung San Suu Kyi and several other senior members of her government were arrested by the military during the coup. Mass protests followed, with demonstrators demanding the resignation of Min Aung Hlaing and the newly created State Administration Council (SAC),
4224-415: Was formed in 1988. It signed a ceasefire agreement with the Chin State government in 2012. The Kuki National Army (KNA) was also founded in 1988 with the goal of creating Kuki autonomy in Myanmar and India. Several separatist groups fighting the Indian government in Northeast India also operate from bases in Myanmar, such as the Zomi Revolutionary Army , the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), and
4290-406: Was partly due to Ne Win's refusal to adopt a federal multi-party system . After negotiations failed, defectors from the Tatmadaw and ethnic insurgents walked back to their bases, with headlines across Myanmar famously reading "They have gone back" ( သူတို့ပြန်ကြလေပြီ ). Private property was confiscated by the government, and the Burmese Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) was founded in 1974 to govern
4356-437: Was perceived by many Burmese as an attempt by China to intrude into Burmese affairs, a sentiment which led to the violent 1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma . By the time the riots were quelled, 31 Chinese civilians had been killed and several Chinese-owned businesses had been burned down. Both immediately after the coup and again in 1972, Ne Win held peace talks with several insurgent groups, but both times they fell apart. This
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