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60-465: Myrmeleontinae is a subfamily of Myrmeleontidae , the antlions. BioLib includes 3 tribes: Selected genera: [REDACTED] Data related to Myrmeleontinae at Wikispecies Antlion see text The antlions are a group of about 2,000 species of insect in the neuropteran family Myrmeleontidae . They are known for the predatory habits of their larvae , which mostly dig pits to trap passing ants or other prey. In North America,

120-536: A monophyletic group, and within the Myrmeleontoidea , the antlions' closest living relatives are thought to be the owlflies (Ascalaphidae). A 2019 study finds Myrmeleontidae to be monophyletic, aside from Stilbopteryginae and Palparinae , which form separate clades closer to Ascalaphidae. The predatory actions of the larvae have attracted attention throughout history and antlions have been mentioned in literature since classical times. The exact meaning of

180-540: A common ancestor who evolved to function as a nocturnal species, decreasing their eyesight in favor of a better sense of smell. The anomaly to this theory were anthropoids , who appeared to have the most divergence from nocturnality of all organisms examined. While most mammals did not exhibit the morphological characteristics expected of a nocturnal creature, reptiles and birds fit in perfectly. A larger cornea and pupil correlated well with whether these two classes of organisms were nocturnal or not. Being active at night

240-518: A crack or digs a funnel-shaped pit in loose material. As ambush predators , catching prey is risky because food arrives unpredictably and, for those species that make traps, maintaining one is costly. The larvae therefore have low metabolic rates and can survive for long periods without food. They can take several years to complete their life-cycle; they mature faster with plentiful food, but can survive for many months without feeding. In cooler climates they dig their way deeper and remain inactive during

300-485: A decrease in mate calls and continued to move around instead of waiting for a potential mate to arrive. This hurts the overall fitness of the species, which is concerning considering the overall decrease in amphibian populations. Predation Some nocturnal predator-prey relationships are interrupted by artificial lighting. Bats that are fast-moving are often at an advantage with insects being drawn to light; they are fast enough to escape any predators also attracted to

360-551: A different four subfamilies: Ascalaphinae , Myrmeleontinae , Dendroleontinae , and Nemoleontinae . Jones dissented with Machado et al. and presented an alternative classification, elevating the Ascalaphinae, Palparinae, and Stilbopterygidae of the prior revision to family level and treating only a single subfamily in Myrmeleontidae. However, this classification has been rejected by Hévin et al. (2023), finding

420-469: A few genera, mostly fossil , are of uncertain or basal position. The fossil record of antlions is very small by neuropteran standards. However, some Mesozoic fossils attest to the antlions' origin more than 150 million years ago. These were at one time separated as the Palaeoleontidae, but are now usually recognized as early antlions. The supra-generic classification within the Myrmeleontidae

480-418: A major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance. Light pollution is a major issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to

540-495: A number of threats to the different endangered species. Adults are likely to stay away from artificially lit beaches that they might prefer to lay eggs on, as there is less cover against predators. Additionally, baby sea turtles that hatch from eggs on artificially lit beaches often get lost, heading towards the light sources as opposed to the ocean. Rhythmic behaviors are affected by light pollution both seasonally and daily patterns. Migrating birds or mammals might have issues with

600-470: A relatively similar spatial habitat as they did before. In comparison, herbivorous prey tend to stay in areas where human disturbance is low, limiting both resources and their spatial habitat. This leads to an imbalance in favor of predators, who increase in population and come out more often at night. In zoos , nocturnal animals are usually kept in special night-illumination enclosures to invert their normal sleep-wake cycle and to keep them active during

660-407: A slender mobile "neck" for the large, square, flattened head, which bears an enormous pair of sickle-like jaws with several sharp, hollow projections. The jaws are formed by the maxillae and mandibles ; the mandibles each contain a deep groove over which the maxilla fits neatly, forming an enclosed canal for injecting venom to immobilise the victim, and enzymes to digest its soft parts. The larva

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720-591: A stock colloquialism for any "inescapable" trap, whether literal or metaphorical ( i.e. an unpleasant social obligation). Antlions appear as antagonists in the 1991 life simulation video game , SimAnt , and (in a giant form) in the Final Fantasy series, Grounded , Terraria , Don't Starve Together , Monster Rancher 2 , Mother 3 and in the Half-Life 2 video game series as an unrelated alien insect species sharing sand burowing traits with

780-698: Is pollination - nocturnal pollinators such as moths, beetles, thrips, and bats have a lower risk of being seen by predators, and the plants evolved temporal scent production and ambient heat to attract nocturnal pollination. Like with predators hunting the same prey, some plants such as apples can be pollinated both during the day and at night. Nocturnality is a form of crypsis , an adaptation to avoid or enhance predation . Although lions are cathemeral , and may be active at any time of day or night, they prefer to hunt at night because many of their prey species ( zebra , antelope , impala, wildebeest , etc.) have poor night vision . Many species of small rodents, such as

840-450: Is a form of niche differentiation , where a species' niche is partitioned not by the amount of resources but by the amount of time (i.e. temporal division of the ecological niche ). Hawks and owls can hunt the same field or meadow for the same rodents without conflict because hawks are diurnal and owls are nocturnal. This means they are not in competition for each other's prey. Another niche that being nocturnal lessens competition within

900-443: Is a voracious predator. Within a few minutes of seizing its prey with its jaws and injecting it with venom and enzymes , it begins to suck out the digestion products. The larva is extremely sensitive to ground vibrations, the low-frequency sounds made by an insect crawling across the ground; the larva locates the source of the vibrations by the differences in timing of the arrival of waves detected by receptors , tufts of hairs on

960-410: Is avoiding the heat of the day. This is especially true in arid biomes like deserts , where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. This is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation . One of the reasons that ( cathemeral ) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water. Hamiltons Frog , found on Stephens and Maud islands, stays hidden for

1020-487: Is clad in forward-pointing bristles which help it to anchor itself and exert greater traction, enabling it to subdue prey considerably larger than itself. Antlion larvae are unusual among insects in lacking an anus . All the metabolic waste generated during the larval stage is stored; some is used to spin the silk for the cocoon and the rest is eventually voided as meconium at the end of its pupal stage. There are about 2,000 species of antlion found in most parts of

1080-578: Is disputed by different authors. Several different schematics have been proposed. Stange recognized three subfamilies, consisting of Stilbopteryginae , Palparinae , and Myrmeleontinae . Brachynemurinae , Dendroleontinae , and other subfamilies recognized by prior authors were placed in the Myrmeleontinae . Michel et.al recognized just four subfamilies, consisting of Acanthaclisinae , Myrmeleontinae , Palparinae , and Stilbopteryginae . . A subsequent revision by Machado et.al recognized

1140-571: Is filtered out of the soil during pit construction. The larvae prefer dry places protected from the rain. When it first hatches, the tiny larva specialises in very small insects, but as it grows larger, it constructs larger pits, and thus catches larger prey, sometimes much larger than itself. Other arthropods may make use of the antlion larva's ability to trap prey. The larva of the Australian horsefly ( Scaptia muscula ) lives in antlion (for example Myrmeleon pictifrons ) pit traps and feeds on

1200-429: Is not needed anymore due to the evolution of compensatory sensory systems, such as a heightened sense of smell and more astute auditory systems. In a recent study, recently extinct elephant birds and modern day nocturnal kiwi bird skulls were examined to recreate their likely brain and skull formation. They indicated that olfactory bulbs were much larger in comparison to their optic lobes , indicating they both have

1260-492: Is probably derived from a misreading of Job 4:11. The French naturalist Jean-Henri Fabre wrote that "The Ant-lion makes a slanting funnel in the sand. Its victim, the Ant, slides down the slant and is then stoned, from the bottom of the funnel, by the hunter, who turns his neck into a catapult." In Japan , both the insect and its pit-traps are popularly known as Arijigoku ( 蟻地獄 , lit. "Ant Hell") . This term has since become

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1320-406: Is usually longer than in females and often has an extra lobe. The tip of the abdomen of females shows greater variation than that of males, depending perhaps on oviposition sites, and usually bears tufts of bristles for digging and a finger-like extension. The antlion larva has a robust fusiform body, a very plump abdomen, and a thorax bearing three pairs of walking legs. The prothorax forms

1380-482: The Large Japanese Field Mouse , are active at night because most of the dozen or so birds of prey that hunt them are diurnal. There are many diurnal species that exhibit some nocturnal behaviors. For example, many seabirds and sea turtles only gather at breeding sites or colonies at night to reduce the risk of predation to themselves and/or their offspring. Nocturnal species take advantage of

1440-464: The Mesozoic , many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal characteristics

1500-514: The type genus Myrmeleo  – and thus, the family as a whole – is derived from Ancient Greek mýrmex (μύρμηξ) "ant" + léon (λέων) "lion", in a loan translation of the names common across Europe. In most European and Middle Eastern languages, at least the larvae are known under the local term corresponding to "antlion". Antlions can be fairly small to very large neuropterans , with wingspans ranging from 2 to 15 cm (0.8 to 5.9 in). The African genus Palpares contains some of

1560-504: The 2nd century AD Physiologus , where animal descriptions were paired with Christian morals. The ant-lion as described was said to starve to death because of its dual nature – the lion nature of the father could only eat meat , but the ant half from the mother could only eat grain chaff , thus the offspring could not eat either and would starve. It was paired with the Biblical verse Matthew 5:37 . The fictional ant-lion of Physiologus

1620-411: The adult is extremely thin and flimsy, with an exceptionally low density . The adult typically lives for about 25 days, but some insects survive for as long as 45 days. Antlion larvae eat small arthropods – mainly ants – while the adults of some species eat pollen and nectar , and others are predators of small arthropods. In certain species of Myrmeleontidae, such as Dendroleon pantherinus ,

1680-408: The artificial lighting. Insects are the most obvious example, who are attracted by the lighting and are usually killed by either the heat or electrical current. Some species of frogs are blinded by the quick changes in light, while nocturnal migratory birds may be disoriented, causing them to lose direction, tire out, or be captured by predators. Sea turtles are particularly affected by this, adding to

1740-502: The avalanches which carry prey are as large as possible. Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand at its angle of repose, they afford an insecure foothold to any small insects that inadvertently venture over the edge, such as ants. Slipping to the bottom, the prey is immediately seized by the lurking antlion; if it attempts to scramble up the treacherous walls of the pit, it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are thrown at it from below by

1800-400: The case, leaving the pupal integument behind, and works its way to the surface. After about twenty minutes, the adult's wings are fully opened and it flies off in search of a mate. The adult is considerably larger than the larva as antlions exhibit the greatest disparity in size between larva and adult of any type of holometabolous insect. This is by virtue of the fact that the exoskeleton of

1860-411: The center. As it slowly moves round and round, the pit gradually gets deeper and deeper, until the slope angle reaches the critical angle of repose (that is, the steepest angle the sand can maintain, where it is on the verge of collapse from slight disturbance), and the pit is solely lined by fine grains. By digging in a spiral when constructing its pit, the antlion minimises the time needed to complete

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1920-428: The change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a "longer day", allowing for a longer hunting period which is detrimental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them. Light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are not as used to

1980-428: The cost. The increasing amount of habitat destruction worldwide as a result of human expansion has given both advantages and disadvantages to different nocturnal animals. As a result of peak human activity in the daytime, more species are likely to be active at night in order to avoid the new disturbance in their habitat. Carnivorous predators however are less timid of the disturbance, feeding on human waste and keeping

2040-399: The daytime. Crepuscular species, such as rabbits , skunks , tigers and hyenas , are often erroneously referred to as nocturnal. Cathemeral species, such as fossas and lions , are active both in the day and at night. While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, a hypothesis in evolutionary biology , the nocturnal bottleneck theory, postulates that in

2100-658: The duration is not likely to convey substantial survival benefits to the larvae. The closest living relatives of antlions within the Myrmeleontoidea are the owlflies (Ascalaphidae); the Nymphidae are more distantly related. The extinct Araripeneuridae and Babinskaiidae are considered likely to be stem groups in the Myrmeleontiformia clade . The phylogeny of the Neuroptera has been explored using mitochondrial DNA sequences, and while issues remain for

2160-450: The family Myrmeleontidae, to which the antlions belong, has been little studied. The life-cycle begins with oviposition ( egg -laying) in a suitable location. The female antlion repeatedly taps the prospective laying site with the tip of her abdomen and then inserts her ovipositor into the substrate and lays an egg. Depending on the species and where it lives, the larva either conceals itself under leaves, debris or pieces of wood, hides in

2220-561: The group as a whole (the " Hemerobiiformia " being paraphyletic ), the Myrmeleontiformia is generally agreed to be monophyletic , giving the following cladogram : Osmylidae (formerly in "Hemerobiiformia") [REDACTED] Mantispidae (mantidflies) [REDACTED] Ithonidae (moth lacewings) [REDACTED] Chrysopidae (green lacewings) [REDACTED] Nymphidae (split-footed lacewings) [REDACTED] Myrmeleontidae (antlions) [REDACTED] Ascalaphidae (owlflies) [REDACTED] The subfamilies are shown below;

2280-430: The head and thorax combined. Also, the pattern of wing venation differs, and compared to damselflies, the adults are very feeble fliers and are normally found fluttering about at night in search of a mate. Adult antlions are typically nocturnal , and rarely seen by day. Males of most species have a unique structure, a bristle-bearing knob known as a "pilula axillaris", at the base of the rear wing. The abdomen in males

2340-438: The jaws of the larva are hollow and through this, the larva sucks the fluids out of its victim. After the contents are consumed, the dry carcass is flicked out of the pit. The larva readies the pit once again by throwing out collapsed material from the center, steepening the pit walls to the angle of repose. Antlion larvae require loose soil, not necessarily, but often, sand. Antlions can also handle larger granular material which

2400-543: The largest examples. Acanthaclisis occitanica is the largest European species, with an 11 cm (4.3 in) wingspan, and most North American species approach this size. The adult has two pairs of long, narrow, multiveined, translucent wings and a long, slender abdomen . Although they somewhat resemble dragonflies or damselflies , they belong to a different infraclass of winged insects . Antlion adults are easily distinguished from damselflies by their prominent, apically clubbed antennae which are about as long as

2460-401: The larva, although resembling that of Myrmeleon structurally, makes no pitfall trap, but hides in detritus in a hole in a tree and seizes passing prey. In Japan, Gatzara jezoensis larvae lurk on the surface of rocks for several years while awaiting prey; during this time they often become coated with lichen , and have been recorded at densities of up to 344 per square metre. The larva

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2520-418: The larva. By throwing up loose sand from the bottom of the pit, the larva also undermines the sides of the pit, causing them to collapse and bring the prey with them. Thus, it does not matter whether the larva actually strikes the prey with the sand showers. Antlion larvae are capable of capturing and killing a variety of insects and other arthropods , and can even subdue small spiders . The projections in

2580-435: The larvae are sometimes referred to as doodlebugs because of the marks they leave in the sand. The adult insects are less well known due to their relatively short lifespans in comparison with the larvae. Adults, sometimes known as antlion lacewings , mostly fly at dusk or just after dark and may be mistakenly identified as dragonflies or damselflies . Antlions have a worldwide distribution. The greatest diversity occurs in

2640-399: The light, leaving slow-moving bats at a disadvantage. Another example is harbor seals eating juvenile salmon that moved down a river lit by nearby artificial lighting. Once the lights were turned off, predation levels decreased. Many diurnal prey species forced into being nocturnal are susceptible to nocturnal predators and those species with poor nocturnal eyesight often bear the brunt of

2700-424: The lower light levels at night. More specifically, they have been found to have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures to increase their visual sensitivity : in the low-light conditions. Nocturnality helps wasps , such as Apoica flavissima , avoid hunting in intense sunlight. Diurnal animals, including humans (except for night owls ), squirrels and songbirds, are active during

2760-408: The majority of the day when temperatures are warmer and are mainly active at night. They will only come out during the day if there are humid and cool conditions. Many plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. These flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of

2820-540: The name "antlion" is uncertain. It has been thought to refer to ants forming a large percentage of the prey of the insect, the suffix "lion" merely suggesting "destroyer" or "hunter". In any case, the term seems to go back to classical antiquity . The antlion larva is often called a "doodlebug" in North America because of the odd winding, spiralling trails it leaves in the sand while relocating, which look as if someone has been doodling . The scientific name of

2880-428: The night time to prey on species that are used to avoiding diurnal predators. Some nocturnal fish species will use the moonlight to prey on zooplankton species that come to the surface at night. Some species have developed unique adaptations that allow them to hunt in the dark. Bats are famous for using echolocation to hunt down their prey, using sonar sounds to capture them in the dark. Another reason for nocturnality

2940-428: The night. Climate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat. The exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had

3000-423: The pit. When the pit is completed, the larva settles down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface, often in a wide-opened position on either side of the very tip of the cone. The steep-sloped trap that guides prey into the larva's mouth while avoiding crater avalanches is one of the simplest and most efficient traps in the animal kingdom. The fine grain lining ensures that

3060-541: The prey caught, and the female chalcid wasp ( Lasiochalcidia igiliensis ) purposefully allows itself to be trapped so that it can parasitise the antlion larva by ovipositing between its head and thorax. Recent research has found that antlion larvae often "play dead" for a variable amount of time (from a few minutes up to an hour) when disturbed to hide from predators. The method is effective; it increased survival rates in patches that use it by 20%. Furthermore, they appear to have maximized its usefulness—further increasing

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3120-459: The real antlion larvae. The Trapinch, Vibrava, and Flygon Pokémon evolution line is based on an antlion. The fictional sarlacc from the Star Wars franchise is often compared to the real-life antlion. It also appears as a predator in the film Enemy Mine . In the third book of Tove Jansson 's Moomins series, Finn Family Moomintroll , a rather large and fanciful antlion appears in

3180-407: The same sort of pit to feed on ants. Having marked out the chosen site with a circular groove, the antlion larva begins to crawl backward, using its abdomen as a plough to dig up the soil. Using one of its front legs, it places heaps of loosened particles upon its head which it then flicks clear of the scene of operations. Continuing in this way, it gradually works its way from the circumference toward

3240-659: The second chapter, depicted as a sand-dwelling predator with the literal head of a lion . [REDACTED] Media related to Myrmeleontidae at Wikimedia Commons Nocturnality Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed senses of hearing , smell , and specially adapted eyesight . Some animals, such as cats and ferrets , have eyes that can adapt to both low-level and bright day levels of illumination (see metaturnal ). Others, such as bushbabies and (some) bats , can function only at night. Many nocturnal creatures including tarsiers and some owls have large eyes in comparison with their body size to compensate for

3300-470: The sides of the two hindmost thoracic segments. Funnel-shaped pits are built by members of just 3 antlion tribes: Myrmeleontini , Myrmecaelurini , and Nesoleontini . In these trap-building species, an average-sized larva digs a pit about 2 in (5 cm) deep and 3 in (7.5 cm) wide at the edge. This behavior has also been observed in the Vermileonidae ( Diptera ), whose larvae dig

3360-456: The taxonomic decisions to be "not substantiated, with only the family name Palparidae being mentioned in isolation." In popular folklore in the southern United States, people recite a poem or chant to make the antlion come out of its hole. Similar practices have been recorded from Africa, the Caribbean, China and Australia. The Myrmecoleon was a mythical ant–lion hybrid written about in

3420-704: The timing of their movement for example. On a day-to-day basis, species can see significant changes in their internal temperatures, their general movement, feeding and body mass. These small scale changes can eventually lead to a population decline, as well as hurting local trophic levels and interconnecting species. Some typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance. There have been documented effects of light pollution on reproductive cycles and factors in different species. It can affect mate choice , migration to breeding grounds, and nest site selection. In male green frogs , artificial light causes

3480-471: The tropics, but a few species are found in cold- temperate locations, one such being the European Euroleon nostras . They most commonly occur in dry and sandy habitats where the larvae can easily excavate their pits, but some larvae hide under debris or ambush their prey among leaf litter . Antlions are poorly represented in the fossil record . Myrmeleontiformia is generally accepted to be

3540-421: The winter. When the larva attains its maximum size, it pupates and undergoes metamorphosis . It makes a globular cocoon of sand or other local substrate stuck together with fine silk spun from a slender spinneret at the rear end of the body. The cocoon may be buried several centimetres deep in sand. After completing its transformation into an adult insect over the course of about one month, it emerges from

3600-420: The world, with the greatest diversity being in warmer areas. The best known species are those in which the larvae dig pits to trap their prey, but not all species do this. Antlions live in a range of usually dry habitats including open woodland floors, scrub -clad dunes , hedge bases, river banks, road verges, under raised buildings and in vacant lots. Apart from pit-trap-forming taxa, the biology of members of

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