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116-520: The National Anti-Vivisection Society ( NAVS ) is an international non-profit animal protection group, based in London, working to end animal testing , and focused on the replacement of animals in research with advanced, scientific techniques. Since 2006, the NAVS has operated its international campaigns under the working name Animal Defenders International (ADI), and the two groups now work together under

232-519: A competitive antagonist . The antidote for curare poisoning is an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor (anti-cholinesterase), such as physostigmine or neostigmine . By blocking ACh degradation, AChE inhibitors raise the amount of ACh in the neuromuscular junction; the accumulated ACh will then correct for the effect of the curare by activating the receptors not blocked by toxin at a higher rate. The time of onset varies from within one minute (for tubocurarine in intravenous administration , penetrating

348-616: A Council meeting on 9 February 1898 the following resolution was passed: The Council affirms that, while the demand for the total abolition of vivisection will ever remain the ultimate object of the National Anti-Vivisection Society, the Society is not thereby precluded from making efforts in Parliament for lesser measures, having for its object the saving of animals from scientific torture. The resolution

464-595: A ban on the Median lethal dose and Draize eye irritancy tests , as well as other measures in relation to the administration of the legislation. Although the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act received Royal Assent on 20 May 1986 and was later described as being an important factor in the UK having the "tightest system of regulation in the world", this view was not supported by animal welfare organisations. It would not be until

580-790: A ban on the export of these animals, which was introduced in 1978. In 1973, the NAVS, now based in Harley Street, London, sought a new strategy and founded the Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research . The Fund was named after Hugh Dowding , the Air Chief Marshal and Battle of Britain Second World War hero. After the war, Lord Dowding became President of the NAVS and in the House of Lords made many impassioned speeches on animal experiments. His wife Lady Dowding

696-619: A broader front. Elam's argument was that 'powerful vested interests' had managed to 'entrench' themselves behind 'State-aided research', and had managed to make themselves unaccountable; the public were unable to influence the decisions about what research should be undertaken, and it operated like a closed shop, only answerable to itself. Elam also argued that the research involved the cruel and inhumane use of animals, and that any thinking person had to question how and why research and results based on animal models could safely be extrapolated to humans. Finally, she complained that animal experimentation

812-441: A classical experiment in which he kept a curarized female donkey alive by artificial respiration with a bellows through a tracheostomy . Waterton is also credited with bringing curare to Europe. Robert Hermann Schomburgk , who was a trained botanist, identified the vine as one of the genus Strychnos and gave it the now accepted name Strychnos toxifera . George Harley (1829–1896) showed in 1850 that curare ( wourali )

928-404: A continuum from very good to very poor and studies of welfare will be most effective if a wide range of measures is used." John Webster criticized this definition for making "no attempt to say what constitutes good or bad welfare." Animal welfare often refers to a utilitarian attitude towards the well-being of nonhuman animals. It believes the animals can be exploited if the animal suffering and

1044-512: A hypodermic needle according to good veterinary practice." It also includes modifying the genes of a protected animal if this causes the animal pain, suffering, distress, or lasting harm. The ASPA also considers other issues such as animal sources , housing conditions, identification methods, and the humane killing of animals. Those applying for a license must explain why such research cannot be done through non-animal methods. The project must also pass an ethical review panel which aims to decide if

1160-806: A larger vein), to between 15 and 25 minutes (for intramuscular administration , where the substance is applied in muscle tissue). It is harmless if taken orally because curare compounds are too large and highly charged to pass through the lining of the digestive tract to be absorbed into the blood. For this reason, people can safely eat curare-poisoned prey, and it has no effect on its flavor. Isolated attempts to use curare during anesthesia date back to 1912 by Arthur Lawen of Leipzig, but curare came to anesthesia via psychiatry ( electroplexy ). In 1939 Abram Elting Bennett used it to modify metrazol induced convulsive therapy . Muscle relaxants are used in modern anesthesia for many reasons, such as providing optimal operating conditions and facilitating intubation of

1276-576: A maximum of six months. In the UK, the welfare of research animals being used for "regulated procedures" was historically protected by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 (ASPA) which is administrated by the Home Office . The Act defines "regulated procedures" as animal experiments that could potentially cause "pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm" to "protected animals". Initially, "protected animals" encompassed all living vertebrates other than humans, but, in 1993, an amendment added

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1392-518: A muscle relaxant. He discovered that different types of curare called for as many as 15 ingredients, and in time helped to identify more than 70 species that produced the drug. In the 1940s, it was used on a few occasions during surgery as it was mistakenly thought to be an analgesic or anesthetic. The patients reported feeling the full intensity of the pain though they were not able to do anything about it since they were essentially paralyzed. On January 23, 1942, Harold Griffith and Enid Johnson gave

1508-622: A new statue with the same inscription in 1985, again in Battersea Park, where it remains to this day. In 1906 the Government appointed the Second Royal Commission on Vivisection. This Second Royal Commission heard a great deal of evidence from the NAVS and other interested parties. It published its findings in 1912, recommending an increase in the numbers of Home Office Inspectors; further limitations with regard to

1624-501: A number of curare-like agents, such as pancuronium , which have a similar pharmacodynamic profile, but fewer side effects. The various components of curare are organic compounds classified as either isoquinoline or indole alkaloids. Tubocurarine is one of the major active components in the South American dart poison. As an alkaloid, tubocurarine is a naturally occurring compound that consists of nitrogenous bases, although

1740-490: A public deprived of information on the issue, the Government set up a ‘Departmental Committee on Experiments on Living Animals’ to consider the use of animals in research, and whether any changes in legislation were necessary. In 1965 the Littlewood Committee, as it was known, published 83 recommendations, and although none of the recommendations were designed to bring an end to animal experiments, no legislation

1856-494: A research field to study "living things and their environment with respect to their welfare (defined as net happiness, or enjoyment minus suffering)." The European Commission 's activities in this area start with the recognition that animals are sentient beings. The general aim is to ensure that animals do not endure avoidable pain or suffering, and obliges the owner/keeper of animals to respect minimum welfare requirements. European Union legislation regarding farm animal welfare

1972-509: A single invertebrate species, the common octopus . Primates , cats , dogs , and horses have additional protection over other vertebrates under the Act. Revised legislation came into force in January 2013. This has been expanded to protect "...all living vertebrates, other than man, and any living cephalopod . Fish and amphibia are protected once they can feed independently and cephalopods at

2088-520: A symbol of wealth among the indigenous populations. In 1596, Sir Walter Raleigh mentioned the arrow poison in his book Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana (which relates to his travels in Trinidad and Guayana ), though the poison he described was possibly not curare. In 1780, Abbe Felix Fontana discovered that it acted on the voluntary muscles rather than the nerves and

2204-430: A synthetic preparation of curare (Intercostrin/Intocostrin) to a patient undergoing an appendectomy (to supplement conventional anesthesia). Safer curare derivatives, such as rocuronium and pancuronium , have superseded d-tubocurarine for anesthesia during surgery. When used with halothane d-tubocurarine can cause a profound fall in blood pressure in some patients as both the drugs are ganglion blockers . However, it

2320-602: Is a positive science." Dictionary definition – In the Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary , animal welfare is defined as "the avoidance of abuse and exploitation of animals by humans by maintaining appropriate standards of accommodation, feeding and general care, the prevention and treatment of disease and the assurance of freedom from harassment, and unnecessary discomfort and pain." American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) has defined animal welfare as: "An animal

2436-440: Is an enzyme used to break down the acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter left over in motor neuron synapses . The aforementioned inhibitors, termed "anticurare" drugs, reversibly bind to the enzyme's active site, prohibiting its ability to bind to its original target, ACh. By blocking ACh degradation, AChE inhibitors can effectively raise the amount of ACh present in the neuromuscular junction. The accumulated ACh will then correct for

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2552-687: Is an issue of importance as part of the social development of nations worldwide. The campaign to achieve the UDAW is being coordinated by World Animal Protection , with a core working group including Compassion in World Farming , the RSPCA, and the Humane Society International (the international branch of HSUS ). The 2019 UN Global Sustainable Development Report identified animal welfare as one of several key missing issues in

2668-399: Is considered highly toxic and slow-acting, with a lowest reported lethal dose of 375 μg/kg (unknown route of administration). For animals, the median lethal dose of tubocurarine is: Death can be prevented by artificial ventilation until curare subsides and muscle function is regained, in which case no permanent effects of poisoning occur. In 1807, Alexander von Humboldt provided

2784-486: Is coping with the conditions in which it lives. An animal is in a good state of welfare if (as indicated by scientific evidence) it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter/killing. Animal welfare refers to

2900-560: Is d- tubocurarine . It was isolated from the crude drug – from a museum sample of curare – in 1935 by Harold King of London, working in Sir Henry Dale 's laboratory. King also established its chemical structure. Pascual Scannone, a Venezuelan anesthesiologist who trained and specialized in New York City, did extensive research on curare as a possible paralyzing agent for patients during surgical procedures. In 1942, he became

3016-488: Is debate about which of these best indicate animal welfare. Respect for animal welfare is often based on the belief that nonhuman animals are sentient and that consideration should be given to their well-being or suffering , especially when they are under the care of humans. These concerns can include how animals are slaughtered for food, how they are used in scientific research , how they are kept (as pets, in zoos, farms, circuses, etc.), and how human activities affect

3132-461: Is in a good state of welfare if (as indicated by scientific evidence) it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behavior, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress." They have offered the following eight principles for developing and evaluating animal welfare policies. Terrestrial Animal Health Code of World Organisation for Animal Health defines animal welfare as "how an animal

3248-421: Is not an animal rights organization. She commented that the goal of the organization is unified in ending animal experimentation. According to Creamer "the remit of the people that we are representing today is against animal experiments. Some of our members are vegetarians, some are not. Some oppose fox hunting, some do not. We are representing a group of people who just agree on animal experiments." From 1897–1889

3364-453: Is not to be confused with the Latin verb 'curare' ('to heal, cure, take care of'). In 1895, pharmacologist Rudolf Boehm sought to classify the various alkaloid poisons based on the containers used for their preparation. He believed curare could be categorized into three main types as seen below. However useful it appeared, it became rapidly outmoded. Richard Gill, a plant collector, found that

3480-497: Is paralysis of every voluntarily controlled muscle in the body (including the eyes), making it practically impossible for the victim to confirm consciousness while paralyzed. Spontaneous breathing is resumed after the end of the duration of action of curare, which is generally between 30 minutes and 8 hours, depending on the variant of the toxin and dosage. Cardiac muscle is not directly affected by curare, but if more than four to six minutes has passed since respiratory cessation

3596-591: Is regularly re-drafted according to science-based evidence and cultural views. For example, in 2009, legislation was passed which aimed to reduce animal suffering during slaughter and on 1 January 2012, the European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC came into act, which means that conventional battery cages for laying hens are now banned across the Union. The Animal Welfare Act 2006 makes owners and keepers responsible for ensuring that

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3712-449: Is safer to use d-tubocurarine with ether . In 1954, an article was published by Beecher and Todd suggesting that the use of muscle relaxants (drugs similar to curare) increased death due to anesthesia nearly sixfold. This was refuted in 1956. Modern anesthetists have at their disposal a variety of muscle relaxants for use in anesthesia. The ability to produce muscle relaxation irrespective of sedation has permitted anesthetists to adjust

3828-518: Is sometimes defined by a list of positive conditions which should be provided to the animal. This approach is taken by the Five Freedoms and the three principles of professor John Webster. The Five Freedoms are: John Webster defines animal welfare by advocating three positive conditions: Living a natural life, being fit and healthy, and being happy. High production – In the past, many have seen farm animal welfare chiefly in terms of whether

3944-417: Is that consciousness exists in nonhuman animals; however, some still maintain that consciousness is a philosophical question that may never be scientifically resolved. Remarkably, a new study has managed to overcome some of the difficulties in testing this question empirically and devised a unique way to dissociate conscious from nonconscious perception in animals. In this study conducted in rhesus monkeys,

4060-556: The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 , which reached the statute book on 15 August 1876. This Act remained in force for 110 years, until it was replaced by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 . The Victoria Street Society had advocated restriction of vivisection but from 1878 onwards declared total abolition of vivisection. This caused some early members such as George Hoggan the then honorary secretary and vice-president Archbishop of York William Thomson to resign. Cobb commented that

4176-669: The Five Freedoms . In the UK, the " Animal Welfare Act 2006 " consolidated many different forms of animal welfare legislation. A number of animal welfare organisations are campaigning to achieve a Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare (UDAW) at the United Nations. In principle, the Universal Declaration would call on the United Nations to recognise animals as sentient beings, capable of experiencing pain and suffering, and to recognise that animal welfare

4292-690: The National Institutes of Health Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, researchers must try to minimize distress in animals whenever possible: "Animals used in research and testing may experience pain from induced diseases, procedures, and toxicity. The Public Health Service (PHS) Policy and Animal Welfare Regulations (AWRs) state that procedures that cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress should be performed with appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. However, research and testing studies sometimes involve pain that cannot be relieved with such agents because they would interfere with

4408-529: The RSPCA . The society used members' donations to employ a growing network of inspectors, whose job was to identify abusers, gather evidence, and report them to the authorities. In 1837, the German minister Albert Knapp founded the first German animal welfare society. One of the first national laws to protect animals was the UK " Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 " followed by the " Protection of Animals Act 1911 ". In

4524-698: The diaphragm . In medicine, curare has been used as a treatment for tetanus and strychnine poisoning and as a paralyzing agent for surgical procedures. The word 'curare' is derived from wurari , from the Carib language of the Macusi of Guyana. It has its origins in the Carib phrase "mawa cure" meaning of the Mawa vine, scientifically known as Strychnos toxifera . Curare is also known among indigenous peoples as Ampi, Woorari, Woorara, Woorali, Wourali, Wouralia, Ourare, Ourari, Urare, Urari, and Uirary. The noun 'curare'

4640-410: The mulesing of sheep and predation of stock by wild animals. Biosecurity is also a risk with free range farming, as it allows for more contact between livestock and wild animal populations, which may carry zoonoses . Farmed animals are artificially selected for production parameters which sometimes impinge on the animals' welfare. For example, broiler chickens are bred to be very large to produce

4756-572: The " Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822 " through Parliament offering protection from cruelty to cattle, horses, and sheep, an animal welfare movement has been active in England. Martin was among the founders of the world's first animal welfare organization, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals , or SPCA, in 1824. In 1840, Queen Victoria gave the society her blessing, and it became

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4872-460: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Animal welfare science is an emerging field that seeks to answer questions raised by the keeping and use of animals, such as whether hens are frustrated when confined in cages, whether the psychological well-being of animals in laboratories can be maintained, and whether zoo animals are stressed by the transport required for international conservation. Ireland leads research into farm animal welfare with

4988-448: The 232 dogs vivisected at the same place during the year 1902. Men and women of England, how long shall these things be?" The statue became the target of animal researchers and London University medical students; students rioted at the site; anti-vivisectionists defended their statue; the elderly Frances Power Cobbe was attacked in her office. After years of conflict, the statue mysteriously disappeared in 1910. The NAVS and others erected

5104-651: The ADI name. The NAVS of the UK is the world's first anti-vivisection organisation, founded in 1875 by Frances Power Cobbe , a humanitarian who authored articles and leaflets opposing animal experiments. The Society was formed on 2 December 1875 in Victoria Street , London, under the name of the Victoria Street Society for the Protection of Animals from Vivisection. Other founding members were

5220-587: The Bruite Creatures" Liberty 92 and 93 in the " Massachusetts Body of Liberties " of 1641. In 1776, English clergyman Humphrey Primatt authored A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals , one of the first books published in support of animal welfare. Marc Bekoff said that "Primatt was largely responsible for bringing animal welfare to the attention of the general public." Since 1822, when Irish MP Richard Martin brought

5336-604: The Burroughs Wellcome catalogue listed under its 'Tabloids' brand name, 1 ⁄ 12 grain (5.4   mg) tablets of curare (price: 8   shillings) for use in preparing a solution for hypodermic injection. In 1914, Henry Hallett Dale (1875–1968) described the physiological actions of acetylcholine . After 25 years, he showed that acetylcholine is responsible for neuromuscular transmission , which can be blocked by curare. The best known and historically most important toxin (because of its medical applications)

5452-549: The MRC had produced a paper called 'Vitamins, A Survey of Present Knowledge'. Elam's 1934 response was entitled 'The Vitamin Survey, A Reply' and was a critical appraisal of that survey and its results. This was followed in 1935 by 'The Medical Research Council, What it is and how it works'. The second paper was based on the same arguments about MRC research practices and remits as the first paper, but distilled and argued more cogently on

5568-840: The NAVS published The Zoophilist magazine. In 1900 it became known as The Zoophilist and Animal's Defender and later The Animal's Defender and Zoophilist . NAVS is associated with Animal Defenders International and the Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research which publish the Animal Defender magazine (latest issue 2017). Animal welfare Animal welfare is the well-being of non-human animals . Formal standards of animal welfare vary between contexts, but are debated mostly by animal welfare groups, legislators, and academics. Animal welfare science uses measures such as longevity , disease , immunosuppression , behavior , physiology , and reproduction , although there

5684-613: The Society, having outgrown the premises in Harley Street it had occupied since 1964 (a move engineered by the then Secretary, Wilfred Risdon ), moved to Goldhawk Road, London, with a subsequent move in 2006 to Millbank Tower, London. From 1878–1898, the National Anti-Vivisection Society had demanded total abolition of vivisection. In 1898, Stephen Coleridge took control of the executive committee and attempted to introduce restrictive legislative proposals. He envisioned progressively more stringent measures leading to total abolition. At

5800-460: The UK alone, up to 20 million broilers each year die from the stress of catching and transporting before reaching the slaughterhouse. Animal welfare violations have been observed more in intensively bred chicken, pig and cattle species, respectively, and studies and laws have been enacted in this regard. However, animal welfare in semi-intensive species such as sheep and goats is nowadays being scrutinised and gaining importance. Another concern about

5916-878: The US are also protected under the Animal Welfare Act . The United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) enforces the Animal Welfare Act. APHIS inspects animal research facilities regularly and reports are published online. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the total number of animals used in the U.S. in 2005 was almost 1.2 million, but this does not include rats, mice, and birds which are not covered by welfare legislation but make up approximately 90% of research animals. There are many different approaches to describing and defining animal welfare. Positive conditions – Providing good animal welfare

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6032-473: The US it was many years until there was a national law to protect animals—the " Animal Welfare Act of 1966 "—although there were a number of states that passed anti-cruelty laws between 1828 and 1898. In India, animals are protected by the " Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 ". Significant progress in animal welfare did not take place until the late 20th century. In 1965, the UK government commissioned an investigation—led by professor Roger Brambell—into

6148-523: The US, every institution that uses vertebrate animals for federally funded laboratory research must have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Each local IACUC reviews research protocols and conducts evaluations of the institution's animal care and use which includes the results of inspections of facilities that are required by law. The IACUC committee must assess the steps taken to "enhance animal well-being" before research can take place. This includes research on farm animals. According to

6264-462: The adoption of advanced, scientific, non-animal techniques to replace the use of animals, especially through its non-animal research wing, the Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research . (See also Animal Defenders International ) Jan Creamer the director of NAVS in 2002 at the House of Lords stated that although in "many cases rights and welfare are very much linked", the National Anti-Vivisection Society

6380-407: The animal is producing well. The argument is that an animal in poor welfare would not be producing well, however, many farmed animals will remain highly productive despite being in conditions where good welfare is almost certainly compromised, e.g., layer hens in battery cages . Emotion in animals – Others in the field, such as professor Ian Duncan and professor Marian Dawkins , focus more on

6496-430: The animals whatsoever. The NAVS believes there are good scientific arguments against the use of animals in research, not least because of the misleading results from animal experiments, due to species differences. Thus, they argue, abolishing animal research would be in the public interest. However, to pursue such a case would be prohibitively expensive. In 1963, with animal experiments running into millions each year and

6612-589: The basis of the new legislation. In light of its perceived weakness of the Government's proposals, and realising that outright abolition was unachievable in the current political climate, NAVS worked with other UK groups such as BUAV, Animal Aid and the Scottish Society, in the drawing-up of a list of key experiments that should be banned under new legislation. This list included a ban on the use of animals in tests for cosmetics, tobacco, alcohol products; warfare experiments; psychological and behavioural tests;

6728-800: The captives afterward for signs of infection from the procedure. Research on wild cetaceans leaves them free to roam and make sounds in their natural habitat, eat live fish, face predators and injury, and form social groups voluntarily. However, boat engines of researchers, whale watchers and others add substantial noise to their natural environment, reducing their ability to echolocate and communicate. Electric engines are far quieter, but are not widely used for either research or whale watching, even for maintaining position, which does not require much power. Vancouver Port offers discounts for ships with quiet propeller and hull designs. Other areas have reduced speeds. Boat engines also have unshielded propellers, which cause serious injuries to cetaceans who come close to

6844-643: The cardiac muscle may stop functioning due to oxygen deprivation, making cardiopulmonary resuscitation including chest compressions necessary. Since tubocurarine and the other components of curare bind reversibly to the ACh receptors, treatment for curare poisoning involves adding an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor, which will stop the destruction of acetylcholine so that it can compete with curare. This can be done by administration of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors such as pyridostigmine , neostigmine , physostigmine , and edrophonium . Acetylcholinesterase

6960-583: The cetaceans from a distance with dart guns. A cetacean was killed by a fungal infection after being darted, due to either an incompletely sterilized dart or an infection from the ocean entering the wound caused by the dart. Researchers on wild cetaceans have not yet been able to use drones to capture noninvasive breath samples. Other harms to wild cetaceans include commercial whaling , aboriginal whaling , drift netting , ship collisions , water pollution , noise from sonar and reflection seismology , predators , loss of prey , and disease . Efforts to enhance

7076-456: The chemical structure of alkaloids is highly variable. Tubocurarine and C toxiferine consist of a cyclic system with quaternary ammonium ions. On the other hand, while acetylcholine does not contain a cyclic system, it does contain a quaternary ammonium ion. Because of this shared moiety, curare alkaloids can bind readily to the active site of receptors for acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction, blocking nerve impulses from being sent to

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7192-568: The contemporary Committee Secretary, Wilfred Risdon , who became Secretary of the NAVS thereafter. After sustained lobbying by animal welfare organisations and other interested parties, in 1983 the UK Government announced that it intended to replace the Cruelty to Animals Act (at that time still in force despite it being introduced nearly one hundred years previously) and published a White Paper that (after consultation) would eventually form

7308-433: The costs of use is less than the benefits to humans. This attitude is also known simply as welfarism . Curare Curare is prepared by boiling the bark of one of the dozens of plant sources, leaving a dark, heavy paste that can be applied to arrow or dart heads. These poisons cause weakness of the skeletal muscles and, when administered in a sufficient dose, eventual death by asphyxiation due to paralysis of

7424-761: The doctrine of non-violence . In the 13th century CE, Genghis Khan protected wildlife in Mongolia during the breeding season (March to October). Early legislation in the Western world on behalf of animals includes the Ireland Parliament (Thomas Wentworth) " An Act against Plowing by the Tayle, and pulling the Wooll off living Sheep ", 1635, and the Massachusetts Colony ( Nathaniel Ward ) "Off

7540-551: The end of the procedure, or if appropriate, during the procedure." The National Research Council's Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals also serves as a guide to improve welfare for animals used in research in the US. The Federation of Animal Science Societies' Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Research and Teaching is a resource addressing welfare concerns in farm animal research. Laboratory animals in

7656-481: The feelings of the animal. This approach indicates the belief that animals should be considered as sentient beings. Duncan wrote, "Animal welfare is to do with the feelings experienced by animals: the absence of strong negative feelings, usually called suffering, and (probably) the presence of positive feelings, usually called pleasure. In any assessment of welfare, it is these feelings that should be assessed." Dawkins wrote, "Let us not mince words: Animal welfare involves

7772-588: The first eye-witness account of curare preparation. A mixture of young bark scrapings of the Strychnos plant, other cleaned plant parts, and occasionally snake venom is boiled in water for two days. This liquid is then strained and evaporated to create a dark, heavy, viscid paste that would be tested for its potency later. This curare paste was described to be very bitter in taste. In 1938, Richard Gill and his expedition collected samples of processed curare and described its method of traditional preparation; one of

7888-618: The first person in Latin America to use curare during a medical procedure when he successfully performed a tracheal intubation in a patient to whom he administered curare for muscle paralysis at the El Algodonal Hospital in Caracas, Venezuela. After its introduction in 1942, curare/curare-derivatives became a widely used paralyzing agent during medical and surgical procedures. In medicine, curare has been superseded by

8004-659: The first time, minimum standards of care. Additional provisions, called the Humane Euthanasia Act, were added in 1990, and then further expanded and strengthened with the Animal Protection Act of 2000. In 2002, voters passed (by a margin of 55% for and 45% against) Amendment 10 to the Florida Constitution banning the confinement of pregnant pigs in gestation crates. In 2006, Arizona voters passed Proposition 204 with 62% support;

8120-434: The greatest quantity of meat per animal. Broilers bred for fast growth have a high incidence of leg deformities because the large breast muscles cause distortions of the developing legs and pelvis, and the birds cannot support their increased body weight. As a consequence, they frequently become lame or suffer from broken legs. The increased body weight also puts a strain on their hearts and lungs, and ascites often develop. In

8236-402: The heart. Curare poisoning can be managed by artificial respiration such as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation . In a study of 29 army volunteers that were paralyzed with curare, artificial respiration managed to keep oxygen saturation always above 85%, a level at which there is no evidence of altered state of consciousness . Yet, curare poisoning mimics total locked-in syndrome in that there

8352-485: The heart. In 1832, Alexander von Humboldt gave the first western account of how the toxin was prepared from plants by Orinoco River natives. During 1811–1812, Sir Benjamin Collins Brody experimented with curare ( woorara ). He was the first to show that curare does not kill the animal and the recovery is complete if the animal's respiration is maintained artificially. In 1825, Charles Waterton described

8468-502: The indigenous peoples began to use a variety of containers for their curare preparations, henceforth invalidating Boehm's basis of classification. Manske also observed in his 1955 The Alkaloids : The results of the early [pre-1900] work were very inaccurate because of the complexity and variation of the composition of the mixtures of alkaloids involved [...] these were impure, non-crystalline alkaloids [...] Almost all curare preparations were and are complex mixtures, and many of

8584-511: The introduction of techniques and technology funded by the Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research. The London Anti-Vivisection Society was formed in 1876 and became known as the London and Provincial Anti-Vivisection Society (LPAVS) from 1907. The Society advocated total abolition of vivisection, not restriction. Its president was the Earl of Tankerville . An active member of LPAVS was a former British Union of Fascists member Norah Elam . Sidney Trist

8700-512: The late 1990s that a change of Government brought in bans on the use of animals for cosmetics research and a ban on the use of great apes would start the process of change. These were followed by the Freedom of Information Act 2000 , which permitted wider public scrutiny of some scientific procedures. More recently, in 2009, the year in which the European directive on animal testing regulations

8816-569: The legislation prohibits the confinement of calves in veal crates and breeding sows in gestation crates. In 2007, the Governor of Oregon signed legislation prohibiting the confinement of pigs in gestation crates and in 2008, the Governor of Colorado signed legislation that phased out both gestation crates and veal crates. Also during 2008, California passed Proposition 2 , known as the "Prevention of Farm Animal Cruelty Act", which orders new space requirements for farm animals starting in 2015. In

8932-410: The life of wild cetaceans, besides reducing those harms, include offering human music. Canadian rules do not forbid playing quiet music, though they forbid "noise that may resemble whale songs or calls, underwater". In addition to cetaceans, the welfare of other wild animals has also been studied, though to a lesser extent than that of animals in farms. Research in wild animal welfare has two focuses:

9048-403: The majority have other secondary ingredients. Curare was used as a paralyzing poison by many South American indigenous people. Since it was too expensive to be used in warfare, curare was mainly used for hunting. The prey was shot by arrows or blowgun darts dipped in curare, leading to asphyxiation owing to the inability of the victim's respiratory muscles to contract. In particular, the poison

9164-517: The new 1986 Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act, is called the Animal Procedures Committee). This was a long way from abolition; it did not deal with the issue of secrecy and public accountability; it left the vivisection community protected from outside control and scrutiny. Although each successive Home Secretary attached ‘pain conditions’ to all experiments, the ‘conditions’ were so worded that they afforded no protection to

9280-423: The perception of better animal welfare facilitates continued and increased exploitation of animals. Some authorities therefore treat animal welfare and animal rights as two opposing positions. Others see animal welfare gains as incremental steps towards animal rights. The predominant view of modern neuroscientists , notwithstanding philosophical problems with the definition of consciousness even in humans,

9396-678: The physician George Hoggan, journalist Richard Holt Hutton and clergyman Henry Edward Manning . The Society's first President was Lord Shaftesbury . Some of the earliest vice-Presidents were Henry Edward Manning, Robert Browning , Lord Coleridge , Thomas Carlyle and Alfred Lord Tennyson . Public opposition to vivisection led the Government to appoint the First Royal Commission on Vivisection in July 1875; it reported its findings on 8 January 1876, recommending that special legislation be enacted to control vivisection. This led to

9512-563: The physiological actions attributed to the early curarizing preparations were undoubtedly due to impurities, particularly to other alkaloids present. The curare preparations are now considered to be of two main types, those from Chondrodendron or other members of the Menispermaceae family and those from Strychnos , a genus of the Loganiaceae [ now Strychnaceae ] family. Some preparations may contain alkaloids from both [...] and

9628-500: The plant species used at that time was Chondrodendron tomentosum . Various irritating herbs, stinging insects, poisonous worms, and various parts of amphibians and reptiles are added to the preparation. Some of these accelerate the onset of action or increase the toxicity; others prevent the wound from healing or blood from coagulating. Curare poisoning can be indicated by typical signs of neuromuscular-blocking drugs such as paralysis including respiration but not directly affecting

9744-425: The point when they hatch. Embryonic and foetal forms of mammals, birds and reptiles are protected during the last third of their gestation or incubation period." The definition of regulated procedures was also expanded: "A procedure is regulated if it is carried out on a protected animal and may cause that animal a level of pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm equivalent to, or higher than, that caused by inserting

9860-689: The potential benefits outweigh any suffering for the animals involved. In the United States, a federal law called the Humane Slaughter Act was designed to decrease suffering of livestock during slaughter. The Georgia Animal Protection Act of 1986 was a state law enacted in response to the inhumane treatment of companion animals by a pet store chain in Atlanta . The Act provided for the licensing and regulation of pet shops, stables, kennels, and animal shelters, and established, for

9976-459: The production of arrow poisons. Among them are: In family Menispermaceae : Other families: Some plants in the family Aristolochiaceae have also been reported as sources. Alkaloids with curare-like activity are present in plants of the fabaceous genus Erythrina . Administration must be parenteral , as gastro-intestinal absorption is ineffective. The toxicity of curare alkaloids in humans has not been systematically established, but it

10092-1163: The production of goat and cattle milk, raising the same concerns. A 2023 report by the Animal Welfare Institute found that animal welfare claims by companies selling meat and poultry products lack adequate substantiation in roughly 85% of analyzed cases. Captive cetaceans are kept for display, research and naval operations. To enhance their welfare, humans feed them fish that are dead but are disease-free, protect them from predators and injury, monitor their health, and provide activities for behavioral enrichment . Some are kept in lagoons with natural soil and vegetated sides. Most are in concrete tanks which are easy to clean but echo their natural sounds back to them. They cannot develop their own social groups, and related cetaceans are typically separated for display and breeding. Military dolphins used in naval operations swim free during operations and training and return to pens otherwise. Captive cetaceans are trained to present themselves for blood samples, health exams, and noninvasive breath samples above their blow holes. Staff can monitor

10208-581: The propeller. The US Coast Guard has proposed rules on propeller guards to protect human swimmers, but has not adopted any rules. The US Navy uses propeller guards to protect manatees in Georgia. Ducted propellers provide more efficient drive at speeds up to 10 knots, and protect animals beneath and beside them, but need grilles to prevent injuries to animals drawn into the duct. Attaching satellite trackers and obtaining biopsies to measure pollution loads and DNA involve either capture and release, or shooting

10324-579: The proponents of these views have advocated carrying out conservation efforts in ways that respect the welfare of wild animals, within the framework of the disciplines of compassionate conservation and conservation welfare , while others have argued in favor of improving the welfare of wild animals for the sake of the animals, regardless of whether there are any conservation issues involved at all. The welfare economist Yew-Kwang Ng , in his 1995 "Towards welfare biology: Evolutionary economics of animal consciousness and suffering", proposed welfare biology as

10440-446: The protection and welfare of animals used in scientific experiments. The NAVS works to educate the public, parliament and researchers about the suffering caused to animals used in research, and how research outcomes are affected by species differences, as well as the biochemical effects of fear, anxiety and stress in the animals. Research results have been known to be affected by an animal’s age, diet, even bedding materials. NAVS promotes

10556-746: The recently published Research Report on Farm Animal Welfare Archived 8 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine . A major concern for the welfare of farmed animals is factory farming in which large numbers of animals are reared in confinement at high stocking densities. Issues include the limited opportunities for natural behaviors, for example, in battery cages , veal and gestation crates , instead producing abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking , and routine invasive procedures such as beak trimming , castration , and ear notching .More extensive methods of farming, e.g. free range , can also raise welfare concerns such as

10672-570: The researchers built experiments predicting completely opposite behavioral outcomes to consciously vs. non-consciously perceived stimuli. Strikingly, the monkeys' behaviors displayed these exact opposite signatures, just like aware and unaware humans tested in the study. Animal protection laws were enacted as early as the 1st millennium BCE in India . Several Indian kings built hospitals for animals, and emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE) issued orders against hunting and animal slaughter, in line with ahimsa ,

10788-522: The scientific objectives of the study. Accordingly, federal regulations require that IACUCs determine that discomfort to animals will be limited to that which is unavoidable for the conduct of scientifically valuable research, and that unrelieved pain and distress will only continue for the duration necessary to accomplish the scientific objectives. The PHS Policy and AWRs further state that animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic pain and distress that cannot be relieved should be painlessly killed at

10904-447: The skeletal muscles, effectively paralyzing the muscles of the body. Curare is an example of a non-depolarizing muscle relaxant that blocks the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) , one of the two types of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors , at the neuromuscular junction . The main toxin of curare, d-tubocurarine , occupies the same position on the receptor as ACh with an equal or greater affinity, and elicits no response, making it

11020-476: The state of the animal; the treatment that an animal receives is covered by other terms such as animal care, animal husbandry, and humane treatment." Coping – Professor Donald Broom defines the welfare of an animal as "Its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment. This state includes how much it is having to do to cope, the extent to which it is succeeding in or failing to cope, and its associated feelings." He states that "welfare will vary over

11136-403: The subjective feelings of animals." Welfare biology – Yew-Kwang Ng defines animal welfare in terms of welfare economics : "Welfare biology is the study of living things and their environment with respect to their welfare (defined as net happiness, or enjoyment minus suffering ). Despite difficulties of ascertaining and measuring welfare and relevancy to normative issues, welfare biology

11252-542: The total abolitionist policy of vivisection introduced "a large batch of fresh recruits of new members who had long resented our previous half-hearted policy as they considered it to have been". In 1897 the growing Victoria Street Society changed its name to the National Anti-Vivisection Society (NAVS). Stephen Coleridge was the director of NAVS. In 1969, NAVS formed the International Association against Painful Experiments on Animals (IAAPEA). In 1990

11368-464: The trachea. Before muscle relaxants, anesthesiologists needed to use larger doses of the anesthetic agent, such as ether , chloroform or cyclopropane to achieve these aims. Such deep anesthesia risked killing patients who were elderly or had heart conditions. The source of curare in the Amazon was first researched by Richard Evans Schultes in 1941. Since the 1930s, it was being used in hospitals as

11484-428: The two effects independently and on the fly to ensure that their patients are safely unconscious and sufficiently relaxed to permit surgery. The use of neuromuscular blocking drugs carries with it the risk of anesthesia awareness . There are dozens of plants from which isoquinoline and indole alkaloids with curarizing effects can be isolated, and which were utilized by indigenous tribes of Central and South America for

11600-512: The use of curare (a paralysing drug which does not deaden pain, but can heighten it); stricter provisions as to the definition and practice of pithing; additional restrictions regulating the painless destruction of animals which show signs of suffering after experimentation; a change in the method of selecting, and in the constitution of, the advisory body of the Secretary of State*; and keeping of special records by vivisectors. (*This body, under

11716-527: The vivisection of Dogs) that was being debated in Parliament at that time. The meeting was held at the Aeolian Hall in London and as Chair, Elam read out 20 letters from Members of Parliament in support of the bill, and stated that, 'A large majority of the public were strongly in favour of the measure, and she felt sure that victory would be theirs if a determined effort were made, especially if women made proper use of their new political power'. In 1932,

11832-465: The welfare and survival of wild species. There are two forms of criticism of the concept of animal welfare, coming from diametrically opposite positions. One view, held by some thinkers in history, holds that humans have no duties of any kind to animals. The other view is based on the animal rights position that animals should not be regarded as property and any use of animals by humans is unacceptable. Accordingly, some animal rights proponents argue that

11948-454: The welfare needs of their animals are met. These include the need: for a suitable environment (place to live), for a suitable diet, to exhibit normal behavior patterns, to be housed with, or apart from, other animals (if applicable), and to be protected from pain, injury, suffering and disease. Anyone who is cruel to an animal, or does not provide for its welfare needs, may be banned from owning animals, fined up to £20,000 and/or sent to prison for

12064-496: The welfare of farmed animals is the method of slaughter , especially ritual slaughter . While the killing of animals need not necessarily involve suffering, the general public considers that killing an animal reduces its welfare. This leads to further concerns about premature slaughtering such as chick culling by the laying hen industry , in which males are slaughtered immediately after hatching because they are superfluous; this policy occurs in other farmed animal industries such as

12180-761: The welfare of intensively farmed animals, partly in response to concerns raised in Ruth Harrison 's 1964 book, Animal Machines . On the basis of Brambell's report, the UK government set up the Farm Animal Welfare Advisory Committee in 1967, which became the Farm Animal Welfare Council in 1979. The committee's first guidelines recommended that animals require the freedom to "stand up, lie down, turn around, groom themselves and stretch their limbs." The guidelines have since been elaborated upon to become known as

12296-414: The welfare of wild animals kept in captivity and the welfare of animals living in the wild. The former has addressed the situation of animals kept both for human use, as in zoos or circuses , or in rehabilitation centers. The latter has examined how the welfare of non-domesticated animals living in wild or urban areas are affected by humans or natural factors causing wild animal suffering . Some of

12412-431: Was "an important step towards achieving the final goal of full replacement of procedures on live animals for scientific and educational purposes as soon as it is scientifically possible to do so". The authors also recommended that the directive be regularly reviewed so as to reflect the scientific advances made in this area, thereby leaving open the possibility that future legislation will incorporate more safeguards to ensure

12528-449: Was also an NAVS Council member (later becoming President after her husband's death). This new strategy was to make positive steps to replace the use of animals in research, and to show that animal research is not necessary for medical and scientific progress. The Lord Dowding Fund continues to be responsible for ground breaking medical and scientific research that does not involve animals. Tens of thousands of animals have been saved, through

12644-460: Was being comprehensively reviewed for the first time in over two decades, NAVS and its animal and environmental group, Animal Defenders International , joined a call for a Europe-wide ban on the use of non-human primates in research. Although only minor concessions were secured in this area when legislation was subsequently passed in September 2010, the authors of the directive acknowledged that it

12760-687: Was carried by 29 votes to 23. Cobbe did not want the Society to promote any measure short of abolition. She was living in semiretirement in Wales at the time and was furious with this decision. In response, she founded the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection . In 1906, a statue was erected in Battersea Park of a brown terrier dog , one of a number of animals described in the journals of two Swedish anti-vivisection campaigners that

12876-426: Was doubly cruel because of the unnecessary repetition of experiments to replicate or prove the same point, which in many cases she argued could have been arrived at by simple, common sense. These papers were widely distributed and copies could be found in libraries throughout the UK. In 1956, the London and Provincial Anti-Vivisection Society became part of the NAVS. This amalgamation was administered and encouraged by

12992-415: Was effective for the treatment of tetanus and strychnine poisoning. In 1857, Claude Bernard (1813–1878) published the results of his experiments in which he demonstrated that the mechanism of action of curare was a result of interference in the conduction of nerve impulses from the motor nerve to the skeletal muscle , and that this interference occurred at the neuromuscular junction . From 1887,

13108-646: Was its secretary. It published The Animals' Guardian , an illustrated magazine. During 1916 and 1917, Elam obtained work as supervisor of a typewriting pool at the Medical Research Council (MRC), gaining a wealth of information she was to use later in articles published under the auspices of the LPAVS during 1934 and 1935. In March 1921, Elam advertised in The Times and chaired a public meeting of LPAVS to discuss 'The Dog's Bill' (a bill to prohibit

13224-421: Was passed to put any of them into effect anyway. Throughout the 20th Century, the NAVS lobbied government and drafted various Bills against a seemingly unstoppable rise in animal experiments ‘reaching almost 6 million per year in the UK by the 1970s’. When the trade in monkeys for use in vaccine tests devastated India's population of rhesus macaques , NAVS representatives went to India and successfully lobbied for

13340-622: Was reported to have been illegally dissected during a demonstration to medical students at the University of London. The inscription on the statue reads: In memory of the Brown Terrier Dog done to death in the laboratories of University College in February 1903, after having endured vivisection extending over more than two months and having been handed from one vivisector to another until death came to his release. Also in memory of

13456-677: Was used by the Kalinago , indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean , on the tips of their arrows. In addition, the Yagua people , indigenous to Colombia and northeastern Peru, commonly used these toxins via blowpipes to target prey 30 to 40 paces distant. Due to its popularity among the indigenous people as means of paralyzing prey, certain tribes would create monopolies from curare production. Thus, curare became

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