63-593: NEVS AB (an abbreviated form of "National Electric Vehicle Sweden") was a Swedish electric car manufacturer which acquired the assets of Saab Automobile from a bankruptcy estate in 2012. After facing numerous financial difficulties, the company resigned most of its employees in March 2023, with both Polestar and EV Electra interested in buying the former Trollhättan factory . NEVS was established by Hong-Kong based energy company National Modern Energy Holdings (NME) and Japanese investment company Sun Investment, for
126-646: A binding agreement with another manufacturer. The project was later cancelled due to a lack of funds. In 2020, NEVS revealed the Sango self driving vehicle as part of its PONS project. The project was intended to act as an autonomous ride-sharing network providing similar levels of privacy and security to a personal vehicle. NEVS partnered with Californian start-up AutoX with the aim of distributing and launching PONS in Sweden. Evergrande Health subsequently announced plans to privatize NEVS by acquiring all its shares, alongside
189-639: A cheaper offer from Beijing Automotive Group in the summer of 2018. Despite this, contracts with Volinco and Panda New Energy remained in place. In March 2018 it was announced that the Chinese investment group GSR Capital was investing $ 500 million in NEVS to develop and produce batteries in Trollhättan and China. GSR Capital had already taken over Nissan's battery division in 2017. In January 2019, Chinese real estate conglomerate Evergrande acquired 51% of
252-696: A development site in Trollhättan, instead purchasing a factory in Italy , leading to NEVS cancelling the agreement and proceeding with the project independently. Aktiebolag Aktiebolag ( Swedish pronunciation: [ˈâktsɪɛbʊˌlɑːɡ] , " stock company ") is the Swedish term for " limited company " or " corporation ". When used in company names, it is abbreviated as AB (in Sweden ), Ab (in Finland ), or, rarely, A/B (dated), roughly equivalent to
315-469: A few thousand charge cycles and are nontoxic. The downsides to the Zebra battery include poor specific power (<300 W/kg) and the need to heat the electrolyte to about 270 °C (518 °F), which wastes some energy, presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge, and is potentially a hazard. Other types of rechargeable batteries used in early electric vehicles include CTx series: During
378-443: A higher specific energy of 30–80 W·h/kg. When used properly, nickel–metal hydride batteries can have exceptionally long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in hybrid cars and in the surviving first-generation NiMH Toyota RAV4 EVs that still operate well after 100,000 miles (160,000 km) and over a decade of service. Downsides include finicky charge cycles and poor performance in cold weather. GM Ovonic produced
441-672: A large energy expenditure, ultimately increasing CO 2 emissions - especially in countries lacking renewable energy resources. There have been many efforts around the world to promote recycling technologies development and deployment. In the US, the Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Offices (VTO) set up two efforts targeting at innovation and practicability of recycling processes. ReCell Lithium Recycling RD center brings in three universities and three national labs together to develop innovative, efficient recycling technologies. Most notably,
504-696: A letter of intent to purchase both the Emily GT and PONS projects from NEVS. This investor was later revealed to be EV Electra CEO Jihad Mohammad, who announced in December 2023 that his company had purchased the rights to both projects, with the Emily GT being renamed the 'EV Electra Emily GT'. A joint statement between NEVS and EV Electra revealed that EV Electra would soon begin to produce cars in Turkey , with Mohammad adding that cars would soon be produced at Trollhättan again. Despite this, EV Electra failed to secure
567-476: A lower energy density compared to other lithium-ion batteries . The Sodium-ion battery completely avoids critical materials. Due to the high availability of sodium which is a part of salt water, cost projections are low. In early 2024, various Chinese manufacturers began with the delivery of their first models. Analysts see a high potential for this type especially for the use in small EVs, bikes and three-wheelers. Several types are in development. In
630-647: A major goal of research. A number of new chemistries compete to displace Li-NMC with (see solid-state battery ) performance above 800Wh/kg in laboratory testing. As of December 2019 , despite more reliance on recycled materials the cost of electric vehicle batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-hour basis. Demand for EVBs exceeded 750 GWh in 2023. EVBs have much higher capacities than automotive batteries used for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) in combustion cars. The average battery capacity of available EV models reached from 21 to 123 kWh in 2023 with an average of 80 kWh. As of 2024,
693-489: A much longer lifetime. For example, lithium-ion cells containing single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) show increased mechanical strength, suppressing degradation and leading to a longer battery lifetime. (same as Wh/kg) 150-220 kWh 165 kWh (sales avg 2023) 210 90-160 kWh 135 kWh (sales avg 2023) 130$ 105$ 87$ 40-80$ (2034) 8-10$ (cold climates) (hot climates) Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides offer high performance and have become
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#1732797584109756-588: A rebranding the company to China Evergrande New Energy Vehicle Group. In 2021, it was reported that Evergrande Group was deep in debt, suspected to be due to the COVID-19 Pandemic , the failure of the Hengchi project and general mismanagement, and so was trying to sell NEVS to various Chinese investment firms, such as the Xiaomi Consortium . During efforts to sell the company, NEVS revealed
819-459: A substantial portion of an EV's overall cost, often accounting for up to 30-40% of the vehicle's total price. However, the cost of EV batteries has been decreasing steadily over the years due to advancements in technology, economies of scale, and improvements in manufacturing processes. EV batteries typically come with warranties covering a certain number of years or miles, reflecting confidence in their durability and reliability over time. One issue
882-713: Is also used in Finland Swedish , alongside the Finnish osakeyhtiö ; the choice and ordering of terms tends to indicate the company's primary working language. Electric-vehicle battery An electric vehicle battery is a rechargeable battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). They are typically lithium-ion batteries that are designed for high power-to-weight ratio and energy density . Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower specific energy . This increases
945-459: Is defined to reach the end-of-life. One of the waste management methods is to reuse the pack. By repurposing the pack for stationary storage, more value can be extracted from the battery pack while reducing the per kWh lifecycle impact. Uneven and undesired battery degradation happens during EV operation depending on temperature during operation and charging/discharging patterns. Each battery cell could degrade differently during operation. Currently,
1008-414: Is emitted during raw materials pre-processing and battery manufacturing under the US average electricity grid. The biggest part of the emission came from materials preparation accounting for more than 50% of the emissions. If NMC pouch cell is used, the total emission increases to almost 10 kg CO 2 e kg battery while materials manufacturing still contributes to more than 50% of the emission. During
1071-410: Is graphite. However, recently there have been a lot of companies started to make Si mixed anode ( Sila Nanotech , ProLogium ) and Li metal anode ( Cuberg , Solid Power ). In general, for active materials production, there are three steps: materials preparation, materials processing and refinement. Schmuch et al. discussed materials manufacturing in greater details. In the cell manufacturing stage,
1134-407: Is not currently an important design consideration for battery manufacturers, and in 2019 only 5% of electric vehicle batteries were recycled. However, closing the loop is extremely important. Not only because of a predicted tightened supply of nickel , cobalt and lithium in the future, also recycling EV batteries has the potential to maximize the environmental benefit. Xu et al. predicted that in
1197-466: Is purchase price, the other issue is total cost of ownership. Total cost of ownership of electric cars is often less than petrol or diesel cars. In 2024 Gartner predicted that by 2027, next-generation BEVs will, on average, be cheaper to produce than a comparable ICE“. In China, BEV are now cheaper than comparable combustion cars. The development is driven by subsidies in the Chinese market. The USA are protecting their own manufacturers with tariffs , in
1260-466: Is seen in company names such as EA Digital Illusions CE AB , Ericsson AB , MySQL AB , Mojang AB , Spotify AB , Scania AB , Hi3G Access AB , and originally, Svenska Aeroplan AB (SAAB). Other companies have included this into their abbreviated trading name, for example SSAB AB (formerly Svenskt Stål AB), HIAB (Hydrauliska Industri AB), ESAB (Elektriska Svetsnings-Aktiebolaget) and LKAB (Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Aktiebolag). The term aktiebolag
1323-474: The 2013 Qingdao oil pipeline explosion , which weakened the financial state of the city. As a result of this, there were no sufficient financial resources to continue production. Production of the 9-3 was suspended in May 2014 due to cash flow problems, with NEVS reportedly owing over $ 57 million to creditors. Struggling to pay its suppliers, the company sought bankruptcy protection with the aim of restructuring. This
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#17327975841091386-661: The Beijing State Research Information Technology Company, resulting in the construction of a $ 400 million factory in Tianjin. NEVS also signed cooperation agreements with Dongfeng Motors and Renesas Electronics , alongside a development contract with the Turkish Institute for Scientific and Technological Research (Tübitak) . These partnerships were intended to combine the technical expertise of NEVS engineers with
1449-914: The lithium-ion battery (LIB) with the variants Li-NMC, LFP and Li-NCA dominates the BEV market. The combined global production capacity in 2023 reached almost 2000 GWh with 772 GWh used for EVs in 2023. Most production is based in China where capacities increased by 45 % that year. With their high energy density and long cycle life, lithium-ion batteries have become the leading battery type for use in EVs. They were initially developed and commercialized for use in laptops and consumer electronics. Recent EVs are using new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging and longer lifespans. These variants have been shown to have
1512-454: The state of health (SOH) information from a battery management system (BMS) can be extracted on a pack level but not on a cell level. Engineers can mitigate the degradation by engineering the next-generation thermal management system. electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) can be used to ensure the quality of the battery pack. It is costly and time-intensive to disassemble modules and cells. The module must be fully discharged. Then,
1575-655: The 20th century most electric vehicles used a flooded lead–acid battery due to their mature technology, high availability, and low cost. Lead–acid batteries powered such early modern EVs as the original 1996 versions of the EV1 . There are two main types of lead–acid batteries: automobile engine starter batteries, and deep-cycle batteries which provide continuous electricity to run electric vehicles like forklifts or golf carts. Deep-cycle batteries are also used as auxiliary batteries in recreational vehicles, but they require different, multi-stage charging. Discharging below 50% can shorten
1638-409: The Emily GT, a mid size electric sports sedan developed by engineers over a period of ten months. The purpose of this announcement was to showcase the firm's technology in an effort to secure a buyer. Stefan Tilk was later replaced as CEO by former HR manager Nina Selander. Despite these efforts to sell the company, NEVS entered a permanent 'hibernation mode' to avoid bankruptcy, essentially liquidating
1701-554: The NiMH battery used in the second generation EV-1. Prototype NiMH-EVs delivered up to 200 km (120 mi) of range. The sodium nickel chloride or "Zebra" battery was used in early EVs between 1997 and 2012. It uses a molten sodium chloroaluminate (NaAlCl 4 ) salt as the electrolyte. It has a specific energy of 120 W·h/kg. Since the battery must be heated for use, cold weather does not strongly affect its operation except for increasing heating costs. Zebra batteries can last for
1764-571: The Saab brand on future car models, with NEVS announcing that it would abandon any reference to Saab while integrating the heritage of the company. NEVS later signed a battery contract with Contemporary Amperex Technology in 2017. In autumn 2017, the new managing director of NEVS, Stefan Tilk, signed a preliminary contract with the Chinese vehicle hire company DiDi , which was to invest $ 500 million in NEVS in order to develop vehicles for its own fleet. The deal subsequently collapsed due to DiDi receiving
1827-952: The Swedish Companies Registration Office, "the name of a public limited company must be mentioned with the term (publ.) after the business name in the articles of association and elsewhere", unless it is clearly understood from the company’s business name that the company is a public limited company. For a private limited company in Sweden ( privat aktiebolag ), the minimum share capital is 25,000 Swedish kronor. The main Swedish statutes regulating limited companies are The Companies Act ( Aktiebolagslagen (ABL) 2005:551) and The Limited Companies Ordinance ( Aktiebolagsförordningen 2005:559). The law provisions in ABL stipulate that parent companies and subsidiaries are separate legal persons and legal entities. The abbreviation AB
1890-526: The abbreviations Corp. , Ltd. , and PLC . The state authority responsible for registration of aktiebolag in Sweden is called the Swedish Companies Registration Office . All aktiebolag are divided into two categories: private limited companies and public limited companies . The name of a private limited company may not contain the word publikt ("public") and the name of a public limited company may not contain
1953-500: The anode SEI layer, traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly. Early cells did not accept or supply charge when extremely cold. Heaters can be used in some climates to warm them. The Lithium iron phosphate battery has a shorter range but is cheaper, safer and more sustainable than the NMC battery. It does not require the critical minerals manganese and cobalt . Since 2023, LFP has become
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2016-415: The battery's life. Flooded batteries require inspection of electrolyte levels and occasional replacement of water, which gases away during the normal charging cycle. EVs with lead–acid batteries are capable of up to 130 km (81 mi) per charge. Nickel–metal hydride batteries are considered a mature technology . While less efficient (60–70%) in charging and discharging than even lead–acid, they have
2079-411: The company. In May 2023, NEVS sold 80% of the Trollhättan factory to Stenhaga Invest AB, a holding company owned by Swedish millionaire Svante Andersson, with NEVS retaining a 20% share of the property. Stenhaga later announced that they had acquired the remaining 20% stake in the factory, becoming its sole owner. In July 2023, Auto Motor und Sport magazine reported that a secret investor had signed
2142-510: The core part of EV, it is difficult for the manufacturer to label the exact chemistry of cathode, anode and electrolytes on the pack. In addition, the capacity and the design of the cells and packs changes on a yearly basis. The refurbishing company needs to closely work with the manufacture to have a timely update on this information. On the other hand, government can set up labeling standard. Lastly, battery costs have decreased faster than predicted. The refurbished unit may be less attractive than
2205-486: The demand in future. According to IEA 2021 study, mineral supplies need to increase from 400 kilotonnes in 2020 to 11,800 kilotonnes in 2040 in order to cover the demand by EV. This increase creates a number of key challenges, from supply chain as 60% of production is concentrated in China to significant impact on climate and environment as result of such a large increase in mining operations. However 45% of oil demand in 2022
2268-486: The direct cathode recycling method was developed by the ReCell center. On the other hand, VTO also set up the battery recycling prize to incentivize American entrepreneurs to find innovative solutions to solve current challenges. Recycling of EV Batteries helps to recover valuable materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and rare-earth elements , reducing the need for new mining and conserving natural resources and reduces
2331-412: The end-of-life management phase, the refurbishing process adds little emission to the lifecycle emission. The recycling process, on the other hand, as suggested by Ciez and Whitacre emits a significant amount of GHG. As shown in the battery recycling emission plot a and c, the emission of the recycling process varies with the different recycling processes, different chemistry and different form factor. Thus,
2394-396: The environmental footprint associated with battery production by minimizing mining impacts, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions. To develop a deeper understanding of the lifecycle of EV batteries, it is important to analyze the emission associated with different phases. Using NMC cylindrical cells as an example, Ciez and Whitacre found that around 9 kg CO 2 e kg battery
2457-603: The environmental impact of this process, the supply chain is increasingly focusing on sustainability, with efforts to reduce reliance on rare-earth minerals and improve recycling. There are mainly three stages during the manufacturing process of EV batteries: materials manufacturing, cell manufacturing and integration, as shown in Manufacturing process of EV batteries graph in grey, green and orange color respectively. This shown process does not include manufacturing of cell hardware, i.e. casings and current collectors. During
2520-424: The first stage, the materials are mined in different parts of the world, including Australia , Russia , New Caledonia and Indonesia . All the following steps are currently dominated by China . After the materials are refined by pre-processing factories, battery manufacturing companies buy them, make batteries, and assemble them into packs. Car manufacturing companies buy and install them in cars. To address
2583-503: The former Saab griffin logo was not used, as Scania AB wanted exclusive rights to the logo and feared it may end up in the wrong hands due to its high value. Due to the scale of the task, Sun Investment withdrew from the project. This led to NME seeking a financial partnership with the Qingdao Qingbo Investment Company, who would grant NEVS SEK 2 billion in return for a 22% stake in the company. A factory
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2646-423: The global standard in BEV production since the 2010s. On the other hand, the exploitation of the required minerals causes environmental problems. The downside of traditional NMC batteries includes sensitivity to temperature, low temperature power performance, and performance degradation with age. Due to the volatility of organic electrolytes, the presence of highly oxidized metal oxides, and the thermal instability of
2709-608: The leading technology in China while the market share in Europe and North America remains lower than 10%. LFP is the dominant type in grid energy storage . Lithium titanate or lithium-titanium-oxide (LTO) batteries are known for their high safety profile, with reduced risk of thermal runaway and effective operation over a wide temperature range. LTO batteries have an impressive cycle life, often exceeding 10,000 charge-discharge cycles. They also have rapid charging capabilities due to their high charge acceptance. However, they have
2772-442: The lithium iron phosphates (LFP) chemistry, the net benefit is negative. Because LFP cells lacks cobalt and nickel which are expensive and energy intensive to produce, it is more energetically efficient to mine. In general, in addition to promoting the growth of a single sector, a more integrated effort should be in place to reduce the lifecycle emission of EV batteries. A finite total supply of rare earth material can apparently justify
2835-520: The materials manufacturing process, the active material, conductivity additives, polymer binder and solvent are mixed first. After this, they are coated on the current collectors ready for the drying process. During this stage, the methods of making active materials depend on the electrode and the chemistry. Cathodes mostly use transition metal oxides, i.e. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (Li-NMC), or else Lithium metal phosphates, i.e. Lithium iron phosphates (LFP). The most popular material for anodes
2898-403: The need for critical minerals. The battery makes up a significant portion of the cost and environmental impact of an electric vehicle. Growth in the industry has generated interest in securing ethical battery supply chains , which presents many challenges and has become an important geopolitical issue. Reduction of use of mined cobalt , which is also required in fossil fuel refining, has been
2961-408: The need for recycling. But the environmental benefit of recycling needs closer scrutiny. Based on current recycling technology, the net benefit of recycling depends on the form factors, the chemistry and the recycling process chosen. Transition to electric vehicles is estimated to require 87 times more than 2015 of specific metals by 2060 that need to be mined initially, with recycling covering part of
3024-416: The net emission avoided compared to not recycling also varies with these factors. At a glance, as shown in the plot b and d, the direct recycling process is the most ideal process for recycling pouch cell batteries, while the hydrometallurgical process is most suitable for cylindrical type battery. However, with the error bars shown, the best approach cannot be picked with confidence. It is worth noting that for
3087-475: The new batteries to the market. Nonetheless, there have been several successes on the second-life application as shown in the examples of storage projects using second-life EV batteries. They are used in less demanding stationary storage application as peak shaving or additional storage for renewable-based generating sources. Although battery life span can be extended by enabling a second-life application, ultimately EV batteries need to be recycled. Recyclability
3150-401: The pack must be disassembled and reconfigured to meet the power and energy requirement of the second life application. A refurbishing company can sell or reuse the discharged energy from the module to reduce the cost of this process. Robots are being used to increase the safety of the dismantling process. Battery technology is non-transparent and lacks standards. Because battery development is
3213-478: The petrol-powered Saab 9-3 Aero commenced in December 2013, with 20% of original General Motors parts having been replaced. Around 10 cars a week were planned to be produced for this small-scale test run, with the majority of cars produced being sold in China. NEVS intended to later produce an electric version of the 9–3, hoping to use the sale of petrol and diesel powered versions of the car to finance this. NEVS's financial partnership with Qingdao later ended due to
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#17327975841093276-410: The prepared electrode will be processed to the desired shape for packaging in a cylindrical, rectangular or pouch format. Then after filling the electrolytes and sealing the cells, the battery cells are cycled carefully to form SEI protecting the anode. Then, these batteries are assembled into packs ready for vehicle integration. When an EV battery pack degrades to 70% to 80% of its original capacity, it
3339-475: The production and supply capabilities of NEVS and Evergrande, with both companies combining their knowledge to develop future vehicle platforms. Koenigsegg has since bought the stake back from NEVS. In April 2019, Munich based start-up Sono Motors announced that the Sion vehicle would be produced under a contract with NEVS in Trollhättan from the second half of 2020. The deal was later cancelled after Sono signed
3402-403: The production capabilities of Dongfeng. In December 2015, NEVS signed a strategic collaboration agreement with the Chinese company Panda New Energy, an energy vehicle leasing company focusing on limiting emissions. According to the agreement, NEVS would provide Panda with 150,000 9-3 sedan electric vehicles until the end of 2020. These vehicles would be assembled at the new Tianjin factory. NEVS
3465-535: The shares in NEVS via its listed subsidiary Evergrande Health Industry Group. In addition to the existing Trollhättan and Tianjin plants, another factory was planned in Shanghai . In the same month, NEVS and Koenigsegg announced that NEVS would acquire a 20% stake in Koenigsegg for $ 150 million, with both companies entering a “strategic partnership”. The stated aim of this partnership was for Koenigsegg to use
3528-577: The sole purpose of acquiring Saab's bankruptcy assets. The company's bid was successful and NEVS acquired the main assets of the Saab Automobile bankruptcy estates in August 2012, intending to run an electric vehicle business at the Saab factory in Trollhättan. NEVS signed a licensing agreement with Saab AB regarding the rights to use the Saab brand name for its future vehicles. The vehicles and related products and services were named Saab, although
3591-436: The sustainable development scenario, lithium, cobalt and nickel will reach or surpass the amount of known reserves in the future if no recycling is in place. Ciez and Whitacre found that by deploying battery recycling some green house gas (GHG) emission from mining could be avoided. BEV technologies lack an established recycling framework in many countries, making the usage of BEV and other battery-operated electrical equipment
3654-493: The weight of vehicles or reduces their range. Li-NMC batteries using lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides are the most common in EV. The lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP) is on the rise, reaching 41 % global market share by capacity for BEVs in 2023. LFP batteries are heavier but cheaper and more sustainable. At the same time, the first commercial passenger cars are using a sodium-ion battery (Na-ion) completely avoiding
3717-473: The word privat or pvt. ("private"). A public limited company ( publikt aktiebolag ) is legally denoted as " AB (publ.) " in Sweden or " Abp " in Finland. A Swedish public limited company must have a minimum share capital of 500,000 Swedish kronor and its shares can be offered to the public on the stock market . The suffix "(publ.)" is sometimes omitted in texts of an informal nature, but according to
3780-545: Was also planned in the vicinity of Qingdao. In September 2013, NEVS began manufacturing pre-production Saab 9-3's at the Trollhättan assembly plant to calibrate assembly equipment and test new components. The only exterior difference was the lack of the Griffin badge, which was replaced with a badge displaying the Saab logotype . During this time, 347 employees were reported to be working at the Trollhättan plant. Following negotiations with parts suppliers, limited production of
3843-785: Was for road transport, and batteries may reduce this to 20% by 2050, which would save hundreds of times more raw material than that used to make the batteries. The mining of nickel , copper and cobalt in developing countries such as the Philippines , the Democratic Republic of Congo , and Indonesia is controversial due to the devastation it causes to the environment. Nickel mining has contributed significantly to deforestation in Indonesia . Average battery costs have fallen by 90% since 2010 due to advances in battery chemistry and manufacturing. Batteries represent
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#17327975841093906-491: Was initially rejected, but approved in a further attempt. Due to these proceedings, Saab revoked the right for NEVS to use the Saab brand name. NEVS was able to leave bankruptcy protection after its debts were forgiven. In May 2015, NEVS took advantage of a campaign launched by the Chinese Government aiming to boost the sale of electric vehicles. The company secured partnerships with the city of Tianjin (THT) and
3969-509: Was joined in this agreement by numerous other electric vehicle start-ups, including Faraday Future . After signing various other industrial partnerships, notably with China Volant Industry Co. (Volinco) in January 2016, and network giant State Grid Electric Services in March 2016, NEVS unveiled its new identity in June during the same year. Saab AB reaffirmed that NEVS would not be allowed to use
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