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103-575: The idea for a provincial archives and a Provincial Archivist first took root on April 30, 1857 when a resolution was put forward in the Legislative Assembly (moved by Joseph Howe , and seconded by James W. Johnston ), making it the first provincial archives in Canada. Thomas Beamish Akins , a lawyer, historian, archivist, and author, was appointed Nova Scotia's first Commissioner of Public Records from 1857 until his death in 1891. In 1931,

206-646: A Pacific outlet. The colony had an extremely large debt that would have to be assumed should it join Confederation. Negotiations were conducted in 1870, principally during Macdonald's illness and recuperation, with Cartier leading the Canadian delegation. Cartier offered British Columbia a railway linking it to the eastern provinces within ten years. The British Columbians, who privately had been prepared to accept far less generous terms, quickly agreed and joined Confederation in 1871. The Canadian Parliament ratified

309-582: A blow to the head by a servant charged with taking care of the boys. After Hugh's store failed, the family moved to Hay Bay (south of Napanee, Ontario ), west of Kingston, where Hugh unsuccessfully ran another shop. In 1829, his father was appointed as a magistrate for the Midland District . John Macdonald's mother was a lifelong influence on her son, helping him in his difficult first marriage and remaining influential in his life until her 1862 death. Macdonald initially attended local schools. When he

412-655: A confederation if the details could be successfully negotiated. In October 1864, delegates for Confederation met in Quebec City for the Quebec Conference , where they agreed to the Seventy-Two Resolutions , the basis of Canada's government. The Great Coalition was endangered by Taché's 1865 death; Lord Monck asked Macdonald to become premier, but Brown felt that he had as good a claim on the position as his coalition partner. The disagreement

515-419: A fully representative government. He was suspicious of formal political parties feeling that they were too restrictive. It was, however, largely his doing that members favouring Liberal principles were able to dominate assembly from 1836 to 1840. He formed a coalition with Conservative leader James William Johnston in 1840 hoping to further the cause of responsible government . Howe held the office of Speaker of

618-583: A journalist and writer have made him a provincial legend. He was born the son of John Howe and Mary Edes at Halifax and inherited from his loyalist father an undying love for Great Britain and her Empire . At age 23, the self-taught but widely read Howe purchased the Novascotian , soon making it into a popular and influential newspaper. He reported extensively on debates in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly and travelled to every part of

721-566: A landmark event in the slow evolution of press freedom in Canada. Brenton Halliburton presided over the Libel trial of Joseph Howe . The outcome of the trial and Howe's writings in the Novascotian so enraged Haliburton's son John C. Halliburton that the son called Howe out for a duel . The duel took place on March 14, 1840, at Point Pleasant . When Haliburton missed with his shot, Howe " deloped " deliberately missing by firing his gun in

824-530: A lawyer, hoping to gain his former employer's clients. Macdonald's parents and sisters also returned to Kingston. Soon after Macdonald was called to the Bar in February 1836, he arranged to take in two students; both became, like Macdonald, Fathers of Confederation . Oliver Mowat became premier of Ontario, and Alexander Campbell a federal cabinet minister and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario . One early client

927-553: A literary career. Macdonald's parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school. As Donald Creighton (who penned a two-volume biography of Macdonald in the 1950s) wrote, "law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence, even to power". It was also "the obvious choice for a boy who seemed as attracted to study as he was uninterested in trade." Macdonald needed to start earning money immediately to support his family because his father's businesses were failing. "I had no boyhood," he complained many years later. "From

1030-412: A new position without needing to face a by-election; Macdonald and his ministers accepted new positions, then completed what was dubbed the " Double Shuffle " by returning to their old posts. In an effort to give the appearance of fairness, Head insisted that Cartier be the titular premier, with Macdonald as his deputy. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Canada enjoyed a period of great prosperity, while

1133-640: A parliamentary committee on confederation among the British North American colonies, which had reported back just before the Taché-Macdonald government fell. Brown was more interested in representation by population; Macdonald's priority was a federation that the other colonies could join. The two compromised and agreed that the new government would support the "federative principle" – a conveniently elastic phrase. The discussions were not public knowledge and Macdonald stunned

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1236-576: A practice especially effective in the era when votes were publicly declared. Macdonald and the Conservatives saw their majority reduced from 35 to 8. The Liberals (as the Grits were coming to be known) did better than the Conservatives in Ontario, forcing the government to rely on the votes of Western and Maritime MPs who did not fully support the party. Macdonald had hoped to award the charter for

1339-520: A prominent young lawyer who was a well-regarded member of Kingston's rising Scottish community. Mackenzie practised corporate law, a lucrative speciality that Macdonald himself would later pursue. Macdonald was a promising student, and in the summer of 1833, managed the Mackenzie office when his employer went on a business trip to Montreal and Quebec in Lower Canada (today the southern portion of

1442-599: A scandal in which his party took bribes from businessmen seeking the contract to build the Canadian Pacific Railway . He was reelected in 1878 . His greatest achievements were building and guiding a successful national government for the new Dominion, using patronage to forge a strong Conservative Party , promoting the protective tariff of the National Policy , and completing the railway. He fought to block provincial efforts to take power back from

1545-692: A small pension. She died in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia , July 6, 1890, and is buried alongside her husband in Camp Hill Cemetery, Halifax. Joseph Howe had ten children with Catherine Susan Ann McNab. There is a Joseph Howe fonds at Library and Archives Canada . On Mr. Howe being called to the Privy Council and appointed President of that body, 19 January 1869 John A. Macdonald Provincial Provincial Sir John Alexander Macdonald (10 or 11 January 1815 – 6 June 1891)

1648-599: A three-year term as the seat of government before the Assembly moved to the permanent capital. He privately asked the Colonial Office to ensure she would not respond for at least ten months, or until after the general election. In February 1858, her choice was announced to the dismay of many legislators from both parts of the province: the isolated Canada West town of Ottawa became the capital. On 28 July 1858, an opposition Canada East member proposed an address to

1751-471: Is considered a landmark case in the struggle for a free press in Canada. The next year, Howe was elected to the assembly as a liberal reformer, beginning a long and eventful public career. He was instrumental in helping Nova Scotia become the first British colony to win responsible government in 1848. He served as premier of Nova Scotia from 1860 to 1863 and led the unsuccessful fight against Canadian Confederation from 1866 to 1868. Having failed to persuade

1854-537: Is the home of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society . 44°38′15″N 63°35′09″W  /  44.637568°N 63.585965°W  / 44.637568; -63.585965 Joseph Howe Joseph Howe PC (December 13, 1804 – June 1, 1873) was a Nova Scotian journalist , politician , public servant , and poet . Howe is often ranked as one of Nova Scotia's most admired politicians and his considerable skills as

1957-551: The Battle of the Windmill near Prescott, Upper Canada . Public opinion was inflamed against the prisoners, as they were accused of mutilating the body of a dead Canadian lieutenant. Macdonald could not represent the prisoners, as they were tried by court-martial and civilian counsel had no standing. At the request of Kingston relatives of Daniel George, paymaster of the ill-fated invasion, Macdonald agreed to advise George, who, like

2060-694: The British North America Act and the establishment of Canada as a nation on 1 July 1867. Macdonald was the first prime minister of the new nation, and served 19 years; only William Lyon Mackenzie King has served longer. In his first term, he established the North-West Mounted Police and expanded Canada by annexing the North-Western Territory , Rupert's Land , British Columbia , and Prince Edward Island . In 1873, he resigned from office over

2163-494: The Canadian Confederation nor American annexation because of his loyalty to Britain. He ran in the great Hants County by election of 1869 to create better terms for Nova Scotia within Canada rather than continue to seek repeal of Confederation. The Great Hants Campaign of 1869 was very difficult and compromised Howe's physical health. Many Nova Scotians continued to support the anti-confederation efforts but

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2266-504: The Canadian Pacific Railway in early 1872, but negotiations dragged on between the government and the financiers. Macdonald's government awarded the Allan group the charter in late 1872. In 1873, when Parliament opened, Liberal MP Lucius Seth Huntington charged that government ministers had been bribed with large, undisclosed political contributions to award the charter. Documents soon came to light which substantiated what came to be known as

2369-592: The London Conference , winning acclaim for his handling of the discussions, and courted and married his second wife, Agnes Bernard . Bernard was the sister of Macdonald's private secretary, Hewitt Bernard ; the couple first met in Quebec in 1860, but Macdonald had seen and admired her as early as 1856. In January 1867, while still in London, he was seriously burned in his hotel room when his candle set fire to

2472-914: The North-West Rebellion that resulted in Riel's execution, and the development of the residential school system designed to assimilate Indigenous children. He remains respected by others for his key role in Confederation. Historical rankings of Prime Ministers of Canada have consistently made him one of the highest-rated in Canadian history . John Alexander Macdonald was born in Ramshorn parish in Glasgow , Scotland, on 10 January (official record) or 11 (father's journal) 1815. His father Hugh, an unsuccessful merchant, had married John's mother, Helen Shaw, on 21 October 1811. John Alexander Macdonald

2575-614: The Pacific Scandal . The Allan-led financiers, who were secretly backed by the United States's Northern Pacific Railway , had donated $ 179,000 to the Tory election funds, they had received the charter, and Opposition newspapers began to publish telegrams signed by government ministers requesting large sums from the railway interest at the time the charter was under consideration. Macdonald had taken $ 45,000 in contributions from

2678-477: The Treaty of Washington against a political firestorm. In the run-up to the 1872 election , Macdonald had yet to formulate a railway policy, or to devise the loan guarantees that would be needed to secure the construction. During the previous year, Macdonald had met with potential railway financiers such as Hugh Allan and considerable financial discussion took place. The greatest political problem Macdonald faced

2781-470: The province of Quebec ). Later that year, Macdonald was sent to manage the law office of a Mackenzie cousin who had fallen ill. In August 1834, George Mackenzie died of cholera . With his supervising lawyer dead, Macdonald remained at the cousin's law office in Hallowell (today Picton, Ontario ). In 1835, Macdonald returned to Kingston, and even though not yet of age nor qualified, began his practice as

2884-504: The 1851 election but were soon divided by a parliamentary scandal. In September, the government resigned, and a coalition government uniting parties from both parts of the province under Allan MacNab took power. Macdonald did much of the work of putting the government together and served as attorney general . The coalition, which came to power in 1854, became known as the Liberal-Conservatives (referred to, for short, as

2987-604: The 3rd Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia post Confederation in 1873. He died in office only a few weeks after his appointment. He is buried in Camp Hill Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1854, he resigned as the provincial secretary in order to head a bi-partisan railway commission. Due to the cost of the project, it was never fully completed. However, Howe was successful in completing lines from Halifax to Windsor . This railway enabled Halifax to monopolize

3090-419: The Assembly by accepting their positions, and had to face by-elections . This gave Macdonald a majority pending the by-elections, and he promptly defeated the government. Head refused Brown's request for a dissolution of the Assembly, and Brown and his ministers resigned. Head then asked Macdonald to form a government. The law allowed anyone who had held a ministerial position within the last thirty days to accept

3193-523: The Assembly by announcing that the dissolution was being postponed because of progress in negotiations with Brown – the two men were not only political rivals, but were known to hate each other. The parties resolved their differences, joining in the Great Coalition , with only the Parti rouge of Canada East, led by Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion , remaining apart. A conference, called by

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3296-486: The Assembly. The two sections each elected 65 legislators, even though Canada West had a larger population. One of Brown's major demands was representation by population, which would lead to Canada West having more seats; this was bitterly opposed by Canada East. The American Civil War led to fears in Canada and in Britain that once the U.S. had concluded its internal warfare, they would invade Canada again. Canada

3399-532: The British to repeal Confederation, Howe joined the federal cabinet of John A. Macdonald in 1869 and played a major role in bringing Manitoba into the union. Howe became the third Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia in 1873, but died after only three weeks in office. The Howe family was of Puritan stock from Massachusetts . Having remained loyal to the crown during the American Revolution ,

3502-715: The Colonial Office, was scheduled for 1 September 1864, in Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island; the Maritimes were to consider a union . The Canadians obtained permission to send a delegation – led by Macdonald, Cartier, and Brown – to what became known as the Charlottetown Conference . At its conclusion, the Maritime delegations expressed a willingness to join

3605-685: The Conservatives). In 1855, George-Étienne Cartier of Canada East (today Quebec) joined the Cabinet. Until Cartier's 1873 death, he would be Macdonald's political partner. In 1856, MacNab was eased out as premier by Macdonald, who became the leader of the Canada West Conservatives. Macdonald remained as attorney general when Étienne-Paschal Taché became premier. In July 1857, Macdonald departed for Britain to promote Canadian government projects. On his return to Canada, he

3708-633: The Hants County electorate continued to support Joseph Howe. In 1869 Howe joined the Canadian Cabinet as President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada after receiving a promise of "better terms" for Nova Scotia. In November 1869, he became secretary of state for the provinces in which post he played a role in Manitoba 's entry into Confederation. He resigned his Cabinet post to become

3811-590: The Imperial Parliament enacting the British North America Act in 1867. Nova Scotians elected 18 out of 19 anti-Confederation candidates as members of the first Dominion Parliament. Joseph Howe led the anti-Confederates in the House of Commons of Canada where he made a speech about his opposition to confederation. Having failed to win repeal of Confederation in 1868, Howe recognized the futility of further protests. He refused to contemplate secession from

3914-516: The Macdonald house in Ottawa, together with Bernard's widowed mother. In May 1870, John Macdonald fell ill with gallstones; coupled with his frequent drinking, he may have developed a severe case of acute pancreatitis . In July, he moved to Prince Edward Island to convalesce, most likely conducting discussions aimed at drawing the island into Confederation at a time when some there supported joining

4017-654: The Maritimes and bind them closer to the rest of Canada, was not yet built. Anglo-American relations were in a poor state, and Canadian foreign relations were matters handled from London. The withdrawal of the Americans in 1866 from the Reciprocity Treaty had increased tariffs on Canadian goods in US markets. American and British opinion largely believed that the experiment of Confederation would quickly unravel, and

4120-563: The Nova Scotia Archives became the first provincial archives in Canada to have a purpose-built building. The Chase Building, designed by Andrew R. Cobb , still exists and is now home to the Math department of Dalhousie University . The current Public Archives Building, designed by Keith L. Graham, opened in 1980 to provide additional vault space and allow for the storage of all archival records under one roof. The department itself

4223-546: The Premier, William Young , was appointed as a judge later that year, Joseph Howe assumed the leadership of the party and therefore became Premier. He served as Premier until 1863 when he accepted the position of Imperial Fisheries Commissioner. Howe's fisheries duties prevented his attendance at the Charlottetown Conference . By the time he returned to Nova Scotia in November 1864, the Quebec Conference had taken place, and

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4326-645: The Quebec Resolutions widely disseminated. He had no chance to influence their content. He led Nova Scotia's anti-Confederation movement believing the Quebec Resolutions to be bad for the province. Because he was still linked with the imperial fishery he expressed his initial opposition anonymously through the Botheration Letters , a series of 12 editorials that appeared in the Morning Chronicle between January and March 1865. This

4429-473: The Queen informing her that Ottawa was an unsuitable place for a national capital. Macdonald's Canada East party members crossed the floor to vote for the address, and the government was defeated. Macdonald resigned, and the Governor General, Sir Edmund Walker Head , invited opposition leader George Brown to form a government. Under the law at that time, Brown and his ministers lost their seats in

4532-550: The United States. The island joined Confederation in 1873. Macdonald had once been tepid on the question of westward expansion of the Canadian provinces; as prime minister, he became a strong supporter of a bicoastal Canada. Immediately upon Confederation, he sent commissioners to London who in due course successfully negotiated the transfer of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to Canada. The Hudson's Bay Company received £300,000 ( CA$ 1,500,000 ) in compensation, and retained some trading posts as well as one-twentieth of

4635-405: The United States. Macdonald was appointed a British commissioner, a post he was reluctant to accept as he realised Canadian interests might be sacrificed for the mother country. This proved to be the case; Canada received no compensation for the raids and no significant trade advantages in the settlement, which required Canada to open her waters to American fishermen. Macdonald returned home to defend

4738-460: The accession of Newfoundland, whose voters rejected a Confederation platform in a general election in October 1869. In 1869, John and Agnes Macdonald had a daughter, Mary. It soon became apparent that Mary had ongoing developmental issues; she was never able to walk, nor did she ever fully develop mentally. Hewitt Bernard, Deputy Minister of Justice and Macdonald's former secretary, also lived in

4841-459: The age of 15, I began to earn my own living." Macdonald travelled by steamboat to Toronto (known until 1834 as York ), where he passed an examination set by The Law Society of Upper Canada . British North America had no law schools in 1830; students were examined when beginning and ending their tutelage. Between the two examinations, they were apprenticed, or articled to established lawyers. Macdonald began his apprenticeship with George Mackenzie,

4944-473: The air. (The last lethal duel in Nova Scotia took place in 1819, in which William Bowie was killed.) Eventually, Howe decided to run for office in order to effect the changes he championed in his newspaper. He was first elected in 1836, campaigning on a platform of support for responsible government. Howe initially proposed only an elected legislative council but he was quick to agree with the concept of

5047-595: The archives' official name changed to the Nova Scotia Archives . The Nova Scotia Archives continues to digitize large parts of its collections for viewing on their website. Their website contains approximately 70 virtual exhibits and databases, and features thousands of archival photos and documents. Nova Scotia Historical Vital Statistics, the Nova Scotia Archives' genealogy website, contains birth, death, and marriage records from 1763 to 1958 with new accruals being added every year. The Nova Scotia Archives

5150-578: The assembly in 1841 and collector of excise for Halifax in 1842. The coalition collapsed under various political conflicts, leading to Howe's resignation from the Council in 1843. The promotion of political ideas in his newspapers were rewarded with a seven-seat Liberal majority in the 1847 election. This led to the formation of the first responsible government in Canada in January 1848. While James Uniacke

5253-636: The best farmland. Prior to the date of acquisition, the Canadian government faced unrest in the Red River Colony (today southeastern Manitoba , centred on Winnipeg ). The local people, including the Métis , were fearful that rule would be imposed on them which did not take into account their interests, and rose in the Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel . Unwilling to pay for a territory in insurrection, Macdonald had troops put down

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5356-499: The bill. The government fell over the bill, and the Grits took over under the leadership of John Sandfield Macdonald (no relation to John A. Macdonald). The parties held an almost equal number of seats, with a handful of independents able to destroy any government. The new government fell in May 1863, but Head allowed a new election, which did little to change party standings. In December 1863, Canada West MP Albert Norton Richards accepted

5459-427: The border. With Canadians fearing invasion from the U.S., the British asked that Canadians pay a part of the expense of defence, and a Militia Bill was introduced in the Assembly in 1862. The opposition objected to the expense, and Canada East representatives feared that French-Canadians would have to fight in a war they wanted no part in. Macdonald was drinking heavily and failed to provide much leadership on behalf of

5562-441: The card game loo and winning substantially. Sometime during his two months in Britain, he met his first cousin, Isabella Clark . As Macdonald did not mention her in his letters home, the circumstances of their meeting are not known. In late 1842, Isabella journeyed to Kingston to visit with a sister. The visit stretched for nearly a year before John and Isabella Macdonald married on 1 September 1843. On 29 March 1843, Macdonald

5665-501: The chair he had fallen asleep in, but Macdonald refused to miss any sessions of the conference. In February, he married Agnes at St George's, Hanover Square . On 8 March, the British North America Act, 1867 , which would thereafter serve as the major part of Canada's constitution, passed the House of Commons (it had previously passed the House of Lords). Queen Victoria gave the bill Royal Assent on 29 March 1867. Macdonald had favoured

5768-696: The court of public opinion. And, while there, he was learning the arts of argument and of persuasion that would serve him all his political life. All male Upper Canadians between 18 and 60 years of age were members of the Sedentary Militia, which was called into active duty during the Rebellions of 1837 . Macdonald served as a Private in Captain George Well's Company of the Commercial Bank Guard. Macdonald and

5871-435: The defendants in the one trial to take place in Kingston. All the Kingston defendants were acquitted, and a local paper described Macdonald as "one of the youngest barristers in the Province [who] is rapidly rising in his profession". In late 1838, Macdonald agreed to advise one of a group of American raiders who had crossed the border to overthrow British rule in Canada. The raiders had been captured by government forces after

5974-431: The election concluded on 15 October 1844. Macdonald was never an orator, and especially disliked the bombastic addresses of the time. Instead, he found a niche in becoming an expert on election law and parliamentary procedure. In 1844, Isabella fell ill. She recovered, but the illness recurred the following year, and she became an invalid. John took his wife to Savannah, Georgia , in the United States in 1845, hoping that

6077-429: The election, Nova Scotia 's premier, Charles Tupper , pushed a pro-Confederation resolution through that colony's legislature. A final conference, to be held in London, was needed before the British Parliament could formalise the union. Maritime delegates left for London in July 1866, but Macdonald, who was drinking heavily again, did not leave until November, angering the Maritimers. In December 1866, Macdonald both led

6180-557: The family of John Howe joined the flood of United Empire Loyalists out of the United States after the American revolutionaries succeeded in their claims of independence. John Howe arrived at Halifax in 1779 and set up a printing shop, where he published the first issue of the Halifax Journal in December 1780. In 1801, Howe was rewarded for his loyalty by appointment as the King's Printer and in 1803 he became deputy postmaster for Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. In 1798, John Howe in married Mary Edes; their son Joseph

6283-416: The greatest in Canadian journalism." On January 1, 1835, Howe's Novascotian published an anonymous letter accusing Halifax politicians and police of pocketing £30,000 over a thirty-year period. The outraged civic politicians had Howe charged with seditious libel , a serious criminal offence. Howe's case seemed hopeless since truth was not a defence. The prosecution had only to prove that Howe had published

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6386-530: The infant. Although he was often absent due to his wife's illness, Macdonald was able to gain professional and political advancement. In 1846, he was made a Queen's Counsel . The same year, he was offered the non-cabinet post of solicitor general , but declined it. In 1847, Macdonald became receiver general . Accepting the government post required Macdonald to give up his law firm income and spend most of his time in Montreal, away from Isabella. When elections were held in December 1848 and January 1849, Macdonald

6489-425: The legislature of the Province of Canada . By 1857, he had become premier under the colony's unstable political system. In 1864, when no party proved capable of governing for long, he agreed to a proposal from his political rival, George Brown , that the parties unite in a Great Coalition to seek federation and political reform. He was a leading figure in the subsequent discussions and conferences which resulted in

6592-400: The letter. Howe decided to act as his own lawyer. For more than five hours, he addressed the jury, citing case after case of civic corruption. He spoke eloquently about the importance of press freedom, urging jurors "to leave an unshackled press as a legacy to your children." Even though the judge instructed the jury to find Howe guilty, jurors took only 10 minutes to acquit him. The decision was

6695-412: The militia marched to Toronto to confront the rebels, and Sir Joseph Pope , Macdonald's private secretary, recalled Macdonald's account of his experience during the march: "I carried my musket in '37", he was wont to say in after years. One day he gave me an account of a long march his company made, I forget from what place, but Toronto was the objective point: "The day was hot, my feet were blistered – I

6798-461: The nascent nation absorbed by the United States. In August 1867, the new nation's first general election was held; Macdonald's party won easily, with strong support in both large provinces, and a majority from New Brunswick. By 1869, Nova Scotia had agreed to remain part of Canada after a promise of better financial terms – the first of many provinces to negotiate concessions from Ottawa. Pressure from London and Ottawa failed to gain

6901-408: The national government in Ottawa . He approved the execution of Métis leader Louis Riel for treason in 1885 which alienated many francophones from his Conservative Party. He sat until his death in 1891 and remains the oldest Canadian prime minister. Macdonald came under criticism for his role in the Chinese head tax and federal policies toward Indigenous peoples , including his actions during

7004-441: The new Commercial Bank of the Midland District. Throughout the 1840s, Macdonald invested heavily in real estate, including commercial properties in downtown Toronto. Meanwhile, he was suffering from some illness, and in 1841, his father died. Sick and grieving, he decided to take a lengthy holiday in Britain in early 1842. He left for the journey well supplied with money, as he spent the last three days before his departure gambling at

7107-475: The new province; Upper Canada and Lower Canada became known as Canada West and Canada East. In March 1844, Macdonald was asked by local businessmen to stand as Conservative candidate for Kingston in the upcoming legislative election . Macdonald followed the contemporary custom of supplying the voters with large quantities of alcohol. Votes were publicly declared in this election, and Macdonald defeated his opponent, Anthony Manahan , by 275 "shouts" to 42 when

7210-410: The other prisoners, had to conduct his own defence. George was convicted and hanged. According to Macdonald biographer Donald Swainson, "By 1838, Macdonald's position was secure. He was a public figure, a popular young man, and a senior lawyer." Macdonald continued to expand his practice while being appointed director of many companies, mainly in Kingston. He became both a director of and a lawyer for

7313-432: The position, serving briefly as a Private in the regiment, patrolling the area around Kingston. The town saw no real action during 1838 and Macdonald was not called upon to fire on the enemy. The Frontenac Militia regiments stayed on active duty in Kingston while the Battle of the Windmill occurred. Although most of the trials resulting from the Upper Canada Rebellion took place in Toronto, Macdonald represented one of

7416-549: The post of solicitor general, and so had to face a by-election. John A. Macdonald campaigned against Richards personally, and Richards was defeated by a Conservative. The switch in seats cost the Grits their majority, and they resigned in March. John A. Macdonald returned to office with Taché as titular premier. The Taché-Macdonald government was defeated in June. The parties were deadlocked to such an extent that, according to Swainson, "It

7519-510: The printing business himself with the purchase of the Nova Scotian , a Halifax newspaper. Howe acted as its editor until 1841, turning the paper into the most influential in the province. Not only did he personally report the legislative assembly debates in its columns, he also published provincial literature and his own travel writings, using the paper as a means for educating the people of Nova Scotia, and himself. "His name ranks as perhaps

7622-508: The province writing about its geography and people. In 1835, Howe was charged with seditious libel , a serious criminal offence, after the Novascotian published a letter attacking Halifax politicians and police for pocketing public money. Howe addressed the jury for more than six hours, citing example after example of civic corruption. The judge called for Howe's conviction, but swayed by his passionate address, jurors acquitted him in what

7725-447: The railroad and telegraph improved communications. According to Macdonald biographer Richard Gwyn, "In short, Canadians began to become a single community." At the same time, the provincial government became increasingly difficult to manage. An act affecting both Canada East and Canada West required a "double majority" – a majority of legislators from each of the two sections of the province. This led to increasing deadlock in

7828-458: The sea air and warmth would cure her ailments. John returned to Canada after six months and Isabella remained in the United States for three years. He visited her again in New York at the end of 1846 and returned several months later when she informed him she was pregnant. In August 1847 their son John Alexander Macdonald Jr. was born in New York, but as Isabella remained ill, relatives cared for

7931-474: The seat of government permanently to Quebec City. Macdonald opposed this and used his power to force the Assembly to reconsider in 1857. He proposed that Queen Victoria decide which city should be Canada's capital. Opponents, especially from Canada East, argued that she would not make the decision in isolation and was bound to receive informal advice from her Canadian ministers. His scheme was adopted, with Canada East support assured by allowing Quebec City to serve

8034-545: The terms after a debate over the high cost that cabinet member Alexander Morris described as the worst fight the Conservatives had had since Confederation. There were continuing disputes with the Americans over deep-sea fishing rights, and in early 1871, an Anglo-American commission was appointed to settle outstanding matters between the British, the Canadians and the Americans. Canada was hoping to secure compensation for damage done by Fenians raiding Canada from bases in

8137-625: The trade of Minas Basin because it passed through the land between Halifax and Hants County . This wealth helped the midland counties improve their economic stability. Due to the economic benefits being realized in Halifax , Howe even proposed the creation of a hotel to attract wealthy travellers using the railway, however this was never built. Howe created a substantial body of poetry, much of it related to his appreciation of Nova Scotia and its history. While he had published some poems during his life and had been preparing others for publication, it

8240-443: The union coming into force on 15 July, fearing that the preparations would not be completed any earlier. The British favoured an earlier date and, on 22 May, it was announced that Canada would come into existence on 1 July. Lord Monck appointed Macdonald as the new nation's first prime minister. With the birth of the new nation, Canada East and Canada West became separate provinces, known as Quebec and Ontario, respectively. Macdonald

8343-554: The uprising before the formal transfer; as a result of the unrest, the Red River Colony joined Confederation as the province of Manitoba, while the rest of the purchased lands became the North-West Territories . Macdonald also wished to secure the colony of British Columbia. There was interest in the United States in bringing about the colony's annexation, and Macdonald wished to ensure his new nation had

8446-420: Was Eliza Grimason, an Irish immigrant then aged sixteen, who sought advice concerning a shop she and her husband wanted to buy. Grimason would become one of Macdonald's richest and most loyal supporters, and may have also become his lover. Macdonald joined many local organisations, seeking to become well known in the town. He also sought out high-profile cases, representing accused child rapist William Brass. Brass

8549-487: Was aged 10, his family gathered enough money to send him to Midland District Grammar School in Kingston. Macdonald's formal schooling ended at 15, a common school-leaving age at a time when only children from the most prosperous families were able to attend university. Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, he might have embarked on

8652-625: Was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on that first observance of what came to be known as Dominion Day, later called Canada Day , on 1 July 1867. Macdonald and his government faced immediate problems upon the formation of the new country. Much work remained to do in creating a federal government. Nova Scotia was already threatening to withdraw from the union; the Intercolonial Railway, which would both conciliate

8755-566: Was appointed premier in place of the retiring Taché, just in time to lead the Conservatives in a general election. Macdonald was elected in Kingston by 1,189 votes to 9 for John Shaw; other Conservatives did poorly in Canada West and only French-Canadian support kept Macdonald in power. On 28 December, Isabella Macdonald died, leaving John a widower with a seven-year-old son. Hugh John Macdonald would be principally raised by his paternal aunt and her husband. The Assembly had voted to move

8858-517: Was born at Halifax on December 13, 1804. Joseph was John's eighth child and Mary's second. John's first wife, Martha Minn, died from complications following childbirth. Like many lads of that time, Joseph Howe attended the Royal Acadian School before beginning an apprenticeship, which he served at his father's printing shop starting at the age of 23. He married Catherine Ann Susan McNab on February 2, 1828. That same year he went into

8961-479: Was born in 1808 in the barracks at the entrance to the harbour of St. John's, Newfoundland, where her father was in command of the troops. She lived with her father on McNab's Island , which had previously been occupied by her uncle, Peter McNab. In Joseph Howe's "Poems and Essays" (Montreal: 1874), there are two poems addressed to his wife. Towards the close of her life, the Legislature of Nova Scotia granted her

9064-669: Was but a weary boy – and I thought I should have dropped under the weight of the old flint musket which galled my shoulder. But I managed to keep up with my companion, a grim old soldier who seemed impervious to fatigue." The Bank Guard served on active duty in Toronto guarding the Commercial Bank of the Midland District on King Street . The company was present at the Battle of Montgomery's Tavern and Macdonald recalled in an 1887 letter to Sir James Gowan that: "I

9167-532: Was clear to everybody that the constitution of the Province of Canada was dead". As his government had fallen again, Macdonald approached the new governor general, Lord Monck , to dissolve the legislature . Before Macdonald could act on this, Brown approached him through intermediaries; the Grit leader believed that the crisis gave the parties the opportunity to join together for constitutional reform. Brown had led

9270-673: Was easily reelected for Kingston, but the Conservatives lost seats and were forced to resign when the legislature reconvened in March 1848. Macdonald returned to Kingston when the legislature was not sitting, and Isabella joined him there in June. In August, their child died suddenly. In March 1850, Isabella Macdonald gave birth to another boy, Hugh John Macdonald , and his father wrote, "We have got Johnny back again, almost his image." Macdonald began to drink heavily around this time, both in public and in private, which Patricia Phenix, who studied Macdonald's private life, attributes to his family troubles. The Liberals, or Grits , maintained power in

9373-462: Was elected as alderman in Kingston's Fourth Ward, with 156 votes against 43 for his opponent, Colonel Jackson. He also suffered what he termed his first downfall, as his supporters, carrying the victorious candidate, accidentally dropped him onto a slushy street. The British Parliament had merged Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada in 1841. Kingston became the initial capital of

9476-543: Was formerly known as the Public Archives of Nova Scotia and was renamed Nova Scotia Archives & Records Management in 1997 after it assumed responsibility of government record-keeping. The former name is still used in certain applications, such as at the agency's headquarters at Robie Street and University Avenue in Halifax . It is a Division of the Department of Communities, Culture and Heritage. In 2011,

9579-407: Was hanged for his crime, but Macdonald attracted positive press comments for the quality of his defence. According to one of his biographers, Richard Gwyn : As a criminal lawyer who took on dramatic cases, Macdonald got himself noticed well beyond the narrow confines of the Kingston business community. He was operating now in the arena where he would spend by far the greatest part of his life –

9682-519: Was in the Second or Third Company behind the cannon that opened out on Montgomery’s House. During the week of the rebellion I was [in] the Commercial Bank Guard in the house on King Street, afterward the habitat of George Brown’s ' Globe '." The Bank Guard was taken off active service on 17 December 1837, and returned to Kingston. On 15 February 1838, Macdonald was appointed an Ensign in the 3rd (East) Regiment of Frontenac Militia but did not take up

9785-649: Was involved with recruiting American troops for the Crimean War . These activities left him with little time to campaign in the 1855 general election which he lost to Charles Tupper in Cumberland. This election also led to conflict with Catholic members of the Liberal party because Howe had ridiculed their religious doctrine. This resulted in a Liberal defeat in 1856. The Liberals did not return to power until 1860 at which time Howe became provincial secretary. When

9888-611: Was not until a year after his death that his family made them public through the publishing of Poems and Essays . Prior to his marriage, Howe had a son by a woman other than his later wife, whose identity is unknown. This first child was Edward Howe, who lived with his mother in a home Howe maintained in Maitland, Nova Scotia . Joseph Howe later married Catherine Susan Ann McNab, daughter of Captain John McNab, Nova Scotia Regiment of Fencible Infantry , on February 2, 1828. She

9991-509: Was officially the Premier, many regarded it as Joseph Howe's ministry. Howe assumed the post of Provincial Secretary , adapting existing institutions to the new system of government. He also began a campaign of railway construction, resigning as Provincial Secretary in 1853 to become Nova Scotia's first Chief Commissioner of Railways; as Commissioner he oversaw the initial construction of the Nova Scotia Railway . In addition, Howe

10094-498: Was resolved by appointing another compromise candidate to serve as titular premier, Narcisse-Fortunat Belleau . In 1865, after lengthy debates, Canada's legislative assembly approved Confederation by 91 votes to 33. None of the Maritimes approved the plan. In 1866, Macdonald and his colleagues financed pro-Confederation candidates in the New Brunswick general election , resulting in a pro-Confederation assembly. Shortly after

10197-618: Was sometimes a safe haven for Confederate Secret Service operations against the U.S.; many Canadian citizens and politicians were sympathetic to the Confederacy. This led to events such as the Chesapeake Affair , the St. Albans Raid , and a failed attempt to burn down New York City . As attorney general of Canada West, Macdonald refused to prosecute Confederate operatives who were using Canada to launch attacks on U.S. soil across

10300-655: Was the Washington treaty, which had not yet been debated in Parliament. In early 1872, Macdonald submitted the treaty for ratification, and it passed the Commons with a majority of 66. The general election was held through late August and early September. Redistribution had given Ontario increased representation in the House; Macdonald spent much time campaigning in the province, for the most part outside Kingston. Widespread bribery of voters took place throughout Canada,

10403-477: Was the extent of his participation in the union debate until March 1866. He learned that Charles Tupper planned to force the Confederation Resolution through the legislature. When he failed to prevent passage of the resolution Howe began a vigorous campaign for repeal by delegations to London and then publishing a variety of anti-Confederation papers and pamphlets. This strategy failed to prevent

10506-566: Was the first prime minister of Canada , serving from 1867 to 1873 and from 1878 until his death in 1891. He was the dominant figure of Canadian Confederation , and had a political career that spanned almost half a century. Macdonald was born in Scotland ; when he was a boy his family immigrated to Kingston in the Province of Upper Canada (today in eastern Ontario ). As a lawyer, he was involved in several high-profile cases and quickly became prominent in Kingston, which elected him in 1844 to

10609-474: Was the third of five children. After Hugh's business ventures left him in debt, the family immigrated to Kingston , in Upper Canada (today the southern and eastern portions of Ontario), in 1820, as the family had several relatives and connections there. The family initially lived together, then resided over a store which Hugh Macdonald ran. Soon after their arrival, John's younger brother James died from

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