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154-541: Nowa Huta is one of the largest planned socialist realist settlements or districts ever built (another being Magnitogorsk in Russia) and "one of the most renowned examples of deliberate social engineering " in the entire world. Built as a utopian ideal city , its street hierarchy, layout and certain grandeur of buildings often resemble Paris or London . The high abundance of parks and green areas in Nowa Huta make it

308-788: A " proletarian literature " was un-Marxist because the proletariat would lose its class characteristics in the transition to a classless society, however, did not prevail. Socialist realism became state policy in 1934 when the First Congress of Soviet Writers met and Stalin's representative Andrei Zhdanov gave a speech strongly endorsing it as "the official style of Soviet culture". It was enforced ruthlessly in all spheres of artistic endeavour. Form and content were often limited, with erotic, religious, abstract, surrealist, and expressionist art being forbidden. Formal experiments, including internal dialogue, stream of consciousness, nonsense, free-form association, and cut-up were also disallowed. This

462-532: A broad philosophical movement that emphasised the study of conscious experience. The Polish Communist authorities abolished the Faculty of Theology at the Jagiellonian University, thereby preventing him from receiving the degree until 1957. Wojtyła developed a theological approach, called phenomenological Thomism , that combined traditional Catholic Thomism with the ideas of personalism ,

616-692: A decade longer. But as political leaders, they were finished. Visiting his native Poland in 1979, Pope John Paul II struck what turned out to be a mortal blow to its Communist regime, to the Soviet Empire, [and] ultimately to Communism." "When Pope John Paul II kissed the ground at the Warsaw airport he began the process by which Communism in Poland — and ultimately elsewhere in Europe — would come to an end." On later trips to Poland, he gave tacit support to

770-611: A different purpose for art: wanting it functional, and Stalin built on that belief that art should be agitation. The term Socialist Realism was proclaimed in 1934 at the Soviet Writer's congress, although it was left not precisely defined. This turned individual artists and their works into state-controlled propaganda. After the death of Stalin in 1953, he was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev who allowed for less draconian state controls and openly condemned Stalin's artistic demands in 1956 with his " Secret Speech ", and thus began

924-470: A different time or place. This sentiment created what would later be dubbed "revolutionary romanticism". Revolutionary romanticism elevated the common worker, whether factory or agricultural, by presenting his life, work, and recreation as admirable. Its purpose was to show how much the standard of living had improved thanks to the revolution, as educational information, to teach Soviet citizens how they should be acting and to improve morale. The ultimate aim

1078-499: A famous article titled "Socialist Realism" in 1933. During the Congress of 1934, four guidelines were laid out for socialist realism. The work must be: The purpose of socialist realism was to limit popular culture to a specific, highly regulated faction of emotional expression that promoted Soviet ideals. The party was of the utmost importance and was always to be favorably featured. The key concepts that developed assured loyalty to

1232-470: A figure in the foreground sacrificing himself for his sufferers, followed by the central group of determined comrades through whose courage and fearlessness is encouraged. The German Democratic Republic used these sculptures to reaffirm its claim to the historical and political legacy of the anti-fascist struggle for freedom. Claudia Cobizev was a Moldovan sculptor, whose work was known for its sensitive portrayals of women and children. Her most notable work

1386-641: A guest in her family home. Wojtyła enjoyed his holiday in Pomfret, Vermont , kayaking and enjoying the outdoors, as he had done in his beloved Poland. During 1974–1975, Wojtyła served Pope Paul VI as consultor to the Pontifical Council for the Laity , as recording secretary for the 1974 synod on evangelism and by participating extensively in the original drafting of the 1975 apostolic exhortation , Evangelii nuntiandi . In August 1978, following

1540-522: A level of authority that had not existed since the early 20th century. In the decade immediately after the fall of the USSR, artists represented socialist realism and the Soviet legacy as a traumatic event. By the next decade, there was a unique sense of detachment. Western cultures often do not look at socialist realism positively. Democratic countries view the art produced during this period of repression as

1694-638: A lie. Non-Marxist art historians tend to view communism as a form of totalitarianism that smothers artistic expression and therefore retards the progress of culture. In recent years there has been a reclamation of the movement in Moscow with the addition of the Institute of Russian Realist Art (IRRA), a three-story museum dedicated to preserving 20th-century Russian realist paintings. Hanns Eisler composed many workers' songs, marches, and ballads on current political topics such as Song of Solidarity , Song of

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1848-414: A love for the profession and participated at a local theatre. The linguistically skilled Wojtyła wanted to study Polish at university. Encouraged by a conversation with Adam Stefan Sapieha , he decided to study theology and become a priest. Eventually, Wojtyła rose to the position of Archbishop of Kraków and then a cardinal , both positions held by his mentor. Wojtyła was elected pope on the third day of

2002-566: A messenger for a restaurant, a manual labourer in a limestone quarry and for the Solvay chemical factory, in order to avoid deportation to Germany. In February 1940, he met Jan Tyranowski who introduced him to the Carmelite spirituality and the " Living Rosary " youth groups. In that same year he had two major accidents, suffering a fractured skull after being struck by a tram and sustaining injuries which left him with one shoulder higher than

2156-530: A mythical founder of Kraków. In the 13th century, a Cistercian monastery in the village of Mogiła was built. In the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century, during the partitions of Poland and up to World War I , the outskirts of Nowa Huta constituted a border between territories controlled by Austria-Hungary and Russia . One can find historic Austro-Hungarian fortresses there, as well as one of Europe's oldest permanent airfields ( Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny Airport , currently housing

2310-510: A nationally known statue of Vladimir Lenin , unveiled on April 28, 1973. The bronze monument was pulled down in 1989 by the city, as a result of numerous protests by local citizens. Several thousand onlookers came to watch the dismantling. Sacral architecture should also be noted, particularly the Arka Pana ( Lord's Ark Church ), which was built to resemble Noah's Ark . It was designed by the architects Wojciech Pietrzyk and Jan Grabacki, with

2464-482: A new privileged stratum...[which] has strangled artistic creation with a totalitarian hand...Even under absolute monarchy art was based on idealization, but not on falsification , whereas in the Soviet Union official art—and none other exists there—is sharing in the fate of official justice; its purpose is to glorify the "Leader" and to manufacture officially a heroic myth...The style of official Soviet painting

2618-526: A number of projects including an English translation of Wojtyła's book Osoba i czyn ( Person and Act ). Person and Act , one of John Paul II's foremost literary works, was initially written in Polish. Tymieniecka produced the English-language version. They corresponded over the years, and grew to be good friends. When Wojtyła visited New England in the summer of 1976, Tymieniecka put him up as

2772-629: A part of the city of Kraków as its new district, and in the following year, construction of tramway connections was underway. On July 22, 1954, the Vladimir Lenin Steelworks was opened, and in less than twenty years, the factory became the largest steel mill in Poland . In the 1960s, the city expanded rapidly. The monumental architecture of the Plac Centralny (Central Square) was surrounded by colossal apartment blocks. In

2926-669: A philosophical approach deriving from phenomenology, which was popular among Catholic intellectuals in Kraków during Wojtyła's intellectual development. He translated Scheler's Formalism and the Ethics of Substantive Values . In 1961, he coined "Thomistic Personalism" to describe Aquinas's philosophy. During this period, Wojtyła wrote a series of articles in Kraków's Catholic newspaper, Tygodnik Powszechny ( Universal Weekly ), dealing with contemporary church issues. He focused on creating original literary work during his first dozen years as

3080-903: A pilgrimage to the Holy Land for the Great Jubilee of 2000. During his visit to the Holy Land, John Paul II visited many sites of the Rosary , including the following locations: Bethany Beyond the Jordan (Al-Maghtas) , at the Jordan River , where John the Baptist baptized Jesus; Manger Square and the Church of the Nativity in the town of Bethlehem , the location of Jesus' birth; and

3234-498: A playwright. During this time, his talent for language blossomed, and he learned as many as 15 languages — Polish, Latin , Italian, English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, German, Luxembourgish , Dutch, Ukrainian, Serbo-Croatian , Czech , Slovak , and Esperanto , nine of which he used extensively as pope. In 1939, after invading Poland, Nazi Germany 's occupation forces closed the university. Able-bodied males were required to work, so from 1940 to 1944 Wojtyła variously worked as

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3388-414: A pope had been chosen. There had been rumours that the new pope wished to be known as Pope Stanislaus in honour of the Polish saint of the name , but was convinced by the cardinals that it was not a Roman name. When the new pontiff appeared on the balcony, he broke tradition by addressing the gathered crowd: "Dear brothers and sisters, we are saddened at the death of our beloved Pope John Paul I, and so

3542-470: A priest. War, life in the Polish People's Republic , and his pastoral responsibilities all fed his poetry and plays. Wojtyła published his work under two pseudonyms, Andrzej Jawień and Stanisław Andrzej Gruda , to distinguish his literary from his religious writings (issued under his own name), and also so that his literary works would be considered on their own merits. In 1960, Wojtyła published

3696-493: A reversal in policy known as " Khrushchev's Thaw ". He believed that artists should not be constrained and should be allowed to live by their creative talents. In 1964, Khrushchev was removed and replaced by Leonid Brezhnev , who reintroduced Stalin's ideas and reversed the artistic decisions made by Khrushchev. However, by the early 1980s, the Socialist Realist movement had begun to fade. Artists to date remark that

3850-563: A satellite industrial city to attract people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds to the region, such as peasants and the working-class. Nowa Huta was created in 1949 as a separate city near Kraków, on terrain repossessed by the Socialist government from the former villages of Mogiła, Pleszów and Krzesławice. It was planned as a colossal center of heavy industry. The city was intended to become an ideal city for Socialist propaganda, and populated primarily by industrial workers. In 1951, it became

4004-438: A schoolteacher, died from a heart attack and kidney failure in 1929 when Wojtyła was eight years old. His elder sister Olga had died before his birth, but he was close to his brother Edmund, nicknamed Mundek, who was 13 years his senior. Edmund's work as a physician eventually led to his death from scarlet fever , a loss that affected Wojtyła deeply. Wojtyła was baptized a month after his birth, made his First Communion at

4158-610: A sincere giving of himself". He also participated in the assemblies of the Synod of Bishops. On 13 January 1964, Pope Paul VI appointed him Archbishop of Kraków . On 26 June 1967, Paul VI announced Wojtyła's promotion to the College of Cardinals . Wojtyła was named cardinal priest of the titular church of San Cesareo in Palatio . In 1967, he was instrumental in formulating the encyclical Humanae vitae , which dealt with

4312-428: A socialist theme – the ideas sparking citizens' consciousness and outlook on life. During this great work, a crucial role fell to the architect, who wasn't perceived as merely an engineer creating streets and edifices, but as an " engineer of the human soul ". The general outlook of a building was more valued than its simple aesthetics. It needed to express social ideas, to arouse a feeling of persistence and power. Since

4466-567: A superb actress." In mid-1938, Wojtyła and his father left Wadowice and moved to Kraków , where he enrolled at the Jagiellonian University . While studying such topics as philology and various languages, he worked as a volunteer librarian and though required to participate in compulsory military training in the Academic Legion , he refused to fire a weapon. He performed with various theatrical groups and worked as

4620-490: A third of my classmates at elementary school in Wadowice were Jews. At secondary school there were fewer. With some I was on very friendly terms. And what struck me about some of them was their Polish patriotism." It was around this time that the young Karol had his first serious relationship with a girl. He became close to a girl called Ginka Beer, described as "a Jewish beauty, with stupendous eyes and jet black hair, slender,

4774-474: A thousand years, he urged a more nuanced view of capital punishment . In his second encyclical Dives in misericordia he stressed that divine mercy is the greatest feature of God, needed especially in modern times. John Paul II was considered a conservative on doctrine and issues relating to human sexual reproduction and the ordination of women. While he was visiting the United States in 1977,

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4928-521: A train and stayed with her throughout the journey to Kraków. She later credited Wojtyła with saving her life that day. B'nai B'rith and other authorities have said that Wojtyła helped protect many other Polish Jews from the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Poland , a Jewish family sent their son, Stanley Berger, to be hidden by a Gentile Polish family. Berger's biological Jewish parents were killed in

5082-581: A working-class woman as its heroine. He battled against the enemies of socialism in the books Two Worlds , and Hands Off! . Bruno Apitz 's novel Nackt unter Wölfen , a story that culminates in the vivid description of the self-liberation of the detainees, was deliberately chosen to take place on the same day as the formal opening of the Buchenwald Monument in September 1958. The novels of Louis Aragon , such as The Real World , depict

5236-773: Is Cap de moldoveancă which was exhibited at the Paris International Exhibition to wide acclaim. In conjunction with the Socialist Classical style of architecture, socialist realism was the officially approved type of art in the Soviet Union for more than fifty years. In the early years of the Soviet Union, Russian and Soviet artists embraced a wide variety of art forms under the auspices of Proletkult . Revolutionary politics and radical non-traditional art forms were seen as complementary. In art, Constructivism flourished. In poetry,

5390-478: Is being described as "socialist realism"- the label could have been invented only by a bureaucrat at the head of an Arts Department." The impact of socialist realist art can still be seen decades after it ceased being the only state-supported style. Even before the end of the USSR in 1991, the government had been reducing its practices of censorship. After Stalin 's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev began to condemn

5544-412: Is guiding all the creative working energies of the country. One of the most famous authors during this time was Alexander Fadeyev . Fadeyev was a close personal friend of Stalin and called Stalin "one of the greatest humanists the world has ever seen." His most famous works include The Rout and The Young Guard . Stalin's adversary, Leon Trotsky , was highly critical of this rigid approach towards

5698-610: Is located in the Lithuanian Art Museum . Martin Andersen Nexø developed socialist realism in his own way. His creative method featured a combination of publicistic passion, a critical view of capitalist society, and a steadfast striving to bring reality into accord with socialist ideals. The novel Pelle, the Conqueror is considered to be a classic of socialist realism. The novel Ditte, Daughter of Man had

5852-446: Is still widely used. In 2014, a bright green statue of a urinating Lenin was installed as part of an arts festival. Nowa Huta is home to several of Kraków's notable sports clubs. Rich in history, Hutnik Nowa Huta football club has sizeable support in the city, as does Kraków's only speedway club, Wanda Kraków . The Kraków Speedway Stadium is a 12,000 all-seated stadium on Odmogile road. It has hosted notable events such as

6006-498: Is the only source of goodness, the only standard of conduct. 'Be not afraid,' he said. Millions shouted in response, 'We want God! We want God! We want God!' The regime cowered. Had the Pope chosen to turn his soft power into the hard variety, the regime might have been drowned in blood. Instead, the Pope simply led the Polish people to desert their rulers by affirming solidarity with one another. The Communists managed to hold on as despots

6160-605: Is usually considered to have been the first socialist-realist novel. Gorky was also a major factor in the school's rapid rise, and his pamphlet, On Socialist Realism , essentially lays out the needs of Soviet art. Other important works of literature include Fyodor Gladkov 's Cement (1925), Nikolai Ostrovsky 's How the Steel Was Tempered (1936) and Aleksey Tolstoy 's epic trilogy The Road to Calvary (1922–1941). Yury Krymov 's novel Tanker "Derbent" (1938) portrays Soviet merchant seafarers being transformed by

6314-593: The Angelicum , Wojtyła studied Hebrew with the Dutch Dominican Peter G. Duncker, author of the Compendium grammaticae linguae hebraicae biblicae . According to Wojtyła's fellow student, the future Austrian cardinal Alfons Stickler , in 1947 during his sojourn at the Angelicum , Wojtyła visited Padre Pio , who heard his confession and told him that one day he would ascend to "the highest post in

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6468-574: The Archbishop of Canterbury , at the spot where Thomas Becket had been killed, as well as holding several large-scale open air masses, including one at Wembley Stadium , which was attended by some 80,000 people. He travelled to Haiti in 1983, where he spoke in Creole to thousands of impoverished Catholics gathered to greet him at the airport. His message, "things must change in Haiti," referring to

6622-423: The Archbishop of Kraków , the future Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha . On 29 February 1944, Wojtyła was hit by a German truck. German Wehrmacht officers tended to him and sent him to a hospital. He spent two weeks there recovering from a severe concussion and a shoulder injury. It seemed to him that this accident and his survival was a confirmation of his vocation. On 6 August 1944, a day known as "Black Sunday",

6776-693: The Belgian Pontifical College during this time, under rectorship of Maximilien de Furstenberg . Wojtyła earned a licence in July 1947, passed his doctoral exam on 14 June 1948, and successfully defended his doctoral thesis titled Doctrina de fide apud S. Ioannem a Cruce (The Doctrine of Faith in St. John of the Cross ) in philosophy on 19 June 1948. The Angelicum preserves the original copy of Wojtyła's typewritten thesis. Among other courses at

6930-661: The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem , the site of Jesus' burial and resurrection. As pope, John Paul II wrote 14 papal encyclicals and taught about sexuality in what is referred as the " Theology of the Body ". Some key elements of his strategy to "reposition the Catholic Church" were encyclicals such as Ecclesia de Eucharistia , Reconciliatio et paenitentia and Redemptoris Mater . In his At

7084-522: The College of Cardinals , consecrated or co-consecrated many of the world's bishops, and ordained many priests. He has been credited with fighting against dictatorships for democracy and with helping to end communist rule in his native Poland and the rest of Europe. Under John Paul II, the Catholic Church greatly expanded its influence in Africa and Latin America and retained its influence in Europe and

7238-649: The Gestapo rounded up young men in Kraków to curtail the uprising there , similar to the recent uprising in Warsaw . Wojtyła escaped by hiding in the basement of his uncle's house at 10 Tyniecka Street, while the German troops searched above. More than eight thousand men and boys were taken that day, while Wojtyła escaped to the Archbishop's residence, where he remained until after the Germans had left. On

7392-700: The Grand Prize at the 1st Cannes Film Festival , and Bimal Roy 's Two Acres of Land (1953), which won the International Prize at the 7th Cannes Film Festival . The painter Aleksandr Deineka provides a notable example for his expressionist and patriotic scenes of the Second World War, collective farms, and sports. Yuriy Ivanovich Pimenov, Boris Ioganson and Geli Korzev have also been described as "unappreciated masters of twentieth-century realism". Another well-known practitioner

7546-471: The Marxist–Leninist ideology , such as the emancipation of the proletariat . Despite its name, the figures in the style are very often highly idealized, especially in sculpture, where it often leans heavily on the conventions of classical sculpture . Although related, it should not be confused with social realism , a type of art that realistically depicts subjects of social concern and was popularized in

7700-524: The New Economic Policy , there was a certain amount of private commercial enterprise, allowing both the futurists and the traditionalists to produce their art for individuals with capital. By 1928, the Soviet government had enough strength and authority to end private enterprises, thus ending support for fringe groups such as the futurists. At this point, although the term "socialist realism" was not being used, its defining characteristics became

7854-544: The Polish Aviation Museum ). Following the Vistula–Oder Offensive in 1945, the Socialist government had encountered substantial resistance to their new regime from middle-class residents of Kraków. A referendum held by the authorities was soundly defeated by the people of Kraków – a major cause of embarrassment to the government. To "correct the class imbalance", the authorities commenced building

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8008-561: The Russian Empire at the time, Znamierowski was of Polish descent and Lithuanian citizenship, a country where he lived for most of his life and died. He excelled in landscapes and social realism, and held many exhibitions. Znamierowski was also widely published in national newspapers, magazines and books. His more notable paintings include Before Rain (1930), Panorama of Vilnius City (1950), The Green Lake (1955), and In Klaipeda Fishing Port (1959). A large collection of his art

8162-905: The Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), where he made contributions to two of its most historic and influential products, the Decree on Religious Freedom (in Latin, Dignitatis humanae ) and the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World ( Gaudium et spes ). Wojtyła and the Polish bishops contributed a draft text to the Council for Gaudium et spes . According to the Jesuit historian John W. O'Malley ,

8316-735: The Stakhanovite movement . Thol , a novel by D. Selvaraj in Tamil is a standing example of Marxist Realism in India. It won a literary award ( Sahithya Akademi ) for the year 2012. Sculptor Fritz Cremer created a series of monuments commemorating the victims of the National Socialist regime in the former concentration camps Auschwitz , Buchenwald , Mauthausen and Ravensbrück . His bronze monument in Buchenwald, depicting

8470-442: The Vatican City State from 1978 until his death in 2005 . In his youth, Wojtyła dabbled in stage acting. He graduated with excellent grades from an all-boys high school in Wadowice , Poland, in 1938, soon after which World War II broke out. During the war, to avoid being kidnapped and sent off to a German forced labour camp , he signed up for work in harsh conditions in a quarry. Wojtyła eventually took up acting and developed

8624-412: The Warsaw Pact , was enforced from 1949 to 1956. It involved all domains of art, but its most spectacular accomplishments were made in the field of architecture . The main lines of this new trend were very precisely indicated in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects. Architecture was an extremely important weapon to the creators of a new social order. It was intended to help to form

8778-422: The aftermath of World War II , socialist realism was adopted by the communist states that were politically aligned with the Soviet Union . The primary official objective of socialist realism was "to depict reality in its revolutionary development" although no formal guidelines concerning style or subject matter were provided. It was usually characterized by unambiguous narratives or iconography relating to

8932-474: The papacy in 1978, intended to visit Nowa Huta during his first papal pilgrimage in 1979, but was not permitted to do so. During the 1980s, Nowa Huta became a city of many demonstrations and violent street protests of the Solidarity movement, fought by the police. At that time, almost 29,000 of the 38,000 workers of the Lenin Steelworks belonged to the Solidarity trade union . The design movement of socialist realism in Poland , as in other member-states of

9086-452: The second papal conclave of 1978 , and became one of the youngest popes in history. The conclave was called after the death of John Paul I , who served only 33 days as pope. Wojtyła adopted the name of his predecessor in tribute to him. John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since Adrian VI in the 16th century, as well as the third- longest-serving pope in history after Pius IX and St. Peter . John Paul II attempted to improve

9240-653: The social doctrine of the church, which he discussed in three encyclicals: Laborem exercens , Sollicitudo rei socialis , and Centesimus annus . Through his encyclicals and many Apostolic Letters and Exhortations, John Paul II talked about the dignity and the equality of women. He argued for the importance of the family for the future of humanity. Other encyclicals include The Gospel of Life ( Evangelium Vitae ) and Ut unum sint ( That They May Be One ). Though critics accused him of inflexibility in explicitly re-asserting Catholic moral teachings against abortion and euthanasia that have been in place for well over

9394-510: The 1960 Poland versus England international that attracted a crowd of 25,000 and a qualifying round of the Speedway World Team Cup in 1964. Socialist realism Socialist realism was the official cultural doctrine of the Soviet Union that mandated an idealized representation of life under socialism in literature and the visual arts . The doctrine was first proclaimed by the First Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934 as approved method for Soviet cultural production in all media . In

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9548-400: The 1970s, steel production reached seven million tons annually. At the same time, the largest tobacco factory in Poland was opened there, as well as a colossal cement factory. The reasons for building such an industrial city near Kraków were primarily ideological , because coal needed to be transported from Silesia , and iron ore needed to be transported from the Soviet Union , while

9702-421: The 264th pope according to the chronological list of popes , the first non-Italian in 455 years. At only 58 years of age, he was the youngest pope since Pope Pius IX in 1846, who was 54. Like his predecessor, John Paul II dispensed with the traditional papal coronation and instead received ecclesiastical investiture with a simplified papal inauguration on 22 October 1978. During his inauguration, when

9856-433: The Baptist is believed to be interred, where he made a speech calling for Muslims, Christians and Jews to live together. On 15 January 1995, during the X World Youth Day, he offered Mass to an estimated crowd of between five and seven million in Luneta Park , Manila , Philippines, which was considered to be the largest single gathering in Christian history . In March 2000, while visiting Jerusalem , John Paul became

10010-409: The Bolsheviks. Shortly after the Bolsheviks took control, Anatoly Lunacharsky was appointed as head of Narkompros , the People's Commissariat for Enlightenment. This put Lunacharsky in the position of deciding the direction of art in the newly created Soviet state. Although Lunacharsky did not dictate a single aesthetic model for Soviet artists to follow, he developed a system of aesthetics based on

10164-399: The Catholic Church ; and the Catechism of the Catholic Church , which among other things clarified the Church's position on homosexuality . Karol Józef Wojtyła was born in the Polish town of Wadowice . He was the youngest of three children born to Karol Wojtyła (1879–1941), an ethnic Pole , and Emilia Kaczorowska (1884–1929), who was of distant Lithuanian heritage. Emilia, who was

10318-467: The Catholic Church's life, John Paul II led nine "dedicated years" during the twenty-six and a half years of his pontificate: the Holy Year of the Redemption in 1983–84, the Marian Year in 1987–88, the Year of the Family in 1993–94, the three Trinitarian years of preparation for the Great Jubilee of 2000, the Great Jubilee itself, the Year of the Rosary in 2002–3, and the Year of the Eucharist , which began on 17 October 2004, and concluded six months after

10472-535: The Catholic Church's relations with Judaism , Islam , and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the spirit of ecumenism , holding atheism as the greatest threat. He maintained the Church's previous positions on such matters as abortion, artificial contraception , the ordination of women , and a celibate clergy, and although he supported the reforms of the Second Vatican Council , he was seen as generally conservative in their interpretation. He put emphasis on family and identity, while questioning consumerism, hedonism and

10626-509: The Church". Stickler added that Wojtyła believed that the prophecy was fulfilled when he became a cardinal. Wojtyła returned to Poland in the summer of 1948 for his first pastoral assignment in the village of Niegowić , 24 kilometres (15 miles) from Kraków, at the Church of the Assumption. He arrived at Niegowić at harvest time, where his first action was to kneel and kiss the ground. He repeated this gesture, which he adopted from John Vianney , throughout his papacy. In March 1949, Wojtyła

10780-513: The Communist Party, and the poputchicks (such as Boris Pasternak and Andrei Bely ). In August 1934, the union held its first congress where Gorky said: The Writers' Union is not being created merely for the purpose of bodily uniting all artists of the pen, but so that professional unification may enable them to comprehend their corporate strength, to define with all possible clarity their varied tendencies, creative activity, guiding principles, and harmoniously to merge all aims in that unity which

10934-406: The Holocaust , and after the war Berger's new Christian parents asked Karol Wojtyła to baptise the boy. Wojtyła refused, saying that the child should be raised in the Jewish faith of his birth parents and nation, not as a Catholic. He did everything he could to ensure that Berger leave Poland to be raised by his Jewish relatives in the United States. In April 2005, shortly after John Paul II's death,

11088-670: The Israeli government created a commission to honour the legacy of John Paul II. One of the honorifics proposed by a head of Italy's Jewish community, Emmanuele Pacifici was the medal of the Righteous Among the Nations . In Wojtyła's last book, Memory and Identity , he described the 12 years of the Nazi régime as " bestiality ", quoting from the Polish theologian and philosopher Konstanty Michalski . After finishing his studies at

11242-585: The Polish people. On 4 July 1958, while Wojtyła was on a kayaking holiday in the lakes region of northern Poland, Pope Pius XII appointed him as an auxiliary bishop of Kraków. He was consequently summoned to Warsaw to meet the Primate of Poland, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński , who informed him of his appointment. Wojtyła accepted the appointment as auxiliary bishop to Kraków's Archbishop Eugeniusz Baziak , and he received episcopal consecration (as titular bishop of Ombi ) on 28 September 1958, with Baziak as

11396-469: The Pope's death. John Paul II recorded music albums. In 1979, his album Pope John Paul II sings at the Festival of Sacrosong was recorded by Infinity Records . In 1994 he released a music album title The Rosary . In 1999, John Paul II released another music album titled Abba Pater . The Great Jubilee of 2000 was a call to the church to become more aware and to embrace her missionary task for

11550-462: The Relationship between Faith and Reason ) John Paul promoted a renewed interest in philosophy and an autonomous pursuit of truth in theological matters. Drawing on many different sources (such as Thomism), he described the mutually supporting relationship between faith and reason , and emphasised that theologians should focus on that relationship. John Paul II wrote extensively about workers and

11704-557: The Russian Social Realist movement as the most oppressive and shunned period of Soviet Art. The Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia ( AKhRR ) was established in 1922 and was one of the most influential artist groups in the USSR. The AKhRR worked to truthfully document contemporary life in Russia by utilizing "heroic realism". The term "heroic realism" was the beginning of the socialist realism archetype. AKhRR

11858-464: The Solidarity organisation. These visits reinforced this message and contributed to the collapse of East European Communism that took place between 1989 and 1990 with the reintroduction of democracy in Poland, and which then spread through Eastern Europe (1990–1991) and South-Eastern Europe (1990–1992). As an extension of his successful work with youth as a young priest, John Paul II pioneered

12012-400: The Soviet Union against foreign invaders: Alexander Nevsky by Eisenstein , Minin and Pozharsky by Pudovkin , and Bogdan Khmelnitsky by Savchenko. Soviet politicians were the subjects in films such as Yutkevich 's trilogy of movies about Lenin. Socialist realism was also applied to Hindi films of the 1940s and 1950s. These include Chetan Anand 's Neecha Nagar (1946), which won

12166-465: The Stalin period, they produced numerous heroic portraits of Stalin to serve his cult of personality —all in the most realistic fashion possible. The most important thing for a socialist realist artist was not artistic integrity but adherence to party doctrine, thus creating a singular utopian aesthetic. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines socialist realism as "a Marxist aesthetic theory calling for

12320-635: The United Front , and Song of the Comintern . He was a founder of a new style of revolutionary song for the masses. He also composed works in larger forms such as Requiem for Lenin . Eisler's most important works include the cantatas German Symphony , Serenade of the Age and Song of Peace . Eisler combines features of revolutionary songs with varied expression. His symphonic music is known for its complex and subtle orchestration. Closely associated with

12474-400: The United States during the 1930s, or other forms of "realism" in the visual arts . Socialist realism was made with an extremely literal and obvious meaning, usually showing an idealized Soviet society . Socialist realism was usually devoid of complex artistic meaning or interpretation. Socialist realism was the predominant form of approved art in the Soviet Union from its development in

12628-457: The age of 9, and was confirmed at the age of 18. As a boy, Wojtyła was athletic, often playing association football as goalkeeper . During his childhood, Wojtyła had contact with the large Jewish community of Wadowice . School football games were often organised between teams of Jews and Catholics, and Wojtyła often played on the Jewish side. In 2005, he recalled: "I remember that at least

12782-463: The allegations themselves have been criticised. Posthumously he has been referred to by some Catholics as Pope St. John Paul the Great , though that title has no official recognition. Under John Paul II, the two most important constitutions of the contemporary Catholic Church were drafted and put in force: the 1983 Code of Canon Law , which, among many things, began an effort to curb sexual abuse in

12936-466: The arts. He viewed cultural conformity as an expression of Stalinism in which "the literary schools were strangled one after the other" and the method of command extended across various areas from scientific agriculture to music. Overall, he regarded socialist realism to be an arbitrary construct of the Stalinist bureaucracy. "In that victorious revolution, there is not only the revolution, but also

13090-417: The beauty of work, the achievements of the collective and the individual for the good of the whole. The artwork would often feature an easily discernible educational message. The artist could not, however, portray life just as they saw it because anything that reflected poorly on Communism had to be omitted. People who could not be shown as either wholly good or wholly evil could not be used as characters. Art

13244-667: The beginning of the new millennium ( Novo Millennio Ineunte ), he emphasised the importance of "starting afresh from Christ": "No, we shall not be saved by a formula but by a Person." In The Splendour of the Truth ( Veritatis Splendor ), he emphasised the dependence of man on God and His Law ("Without the Creator, the creature disappears") and the "dependence of freedom on the truth". He warned that man "giving himself over to relativism and scepticism, goes off in search of an illusory freedom apart from truth itself". In Fides et Ratio ( On

13398-512: The cardinals have called for a new bishop of Rome. They called him from a faraway land—far and yet always close because of our communion in faith and Christian traditions. I was afraid to accept that responsibility, yet I do so in a spirit of obedience to the Lord and total faithfulness to Mary, our most Holy Mother. I am speaking to you in your—no, our Italian language. If I make a mistake, please corrict [ sic ] me." Wojtyła became

13552-409: The cardinals were to kneel before him to take their vows and kiss his ring, he stood up as the Polish prelate, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński knelt down, stopped him from kissing the ring, and simply embraced him. During his pontificate, John Paul II made journeys to 129 countries, travelling more than 1,100,000 kilometres (680,000 mi) while doing so. He consistently attracted large crowds, some among

13706-405: The characteristics of socialist realism in an ironic fashion. This was completely different from what existed only a couple of decades before. Once artists broke from the socialist realist mould, there was a significant power shift. Artists began including subjects that could not exist according to Soviet ideals. Now that the power over appearances was taken away from the government, artists achieved

13860-437: The condemnation of abortion, euthanasia, and virtually all capital punishment, calling them all a part of a struggle between a " culture of life " and a "culture of death". He campaigned for world debt forgiveness and social justice . He coined the term " social mortgage ", which related that all private property had a social dimension, namely that "the goods of this are originally meant for all." In 2000, he publicly endorsed

14014-414: The death of Pope Paul VI, Wojtyła voted in the papal conclave , which elected John Paul I . John Paul I died after only 33 days as pope, triggering another conclave . The second conclave of 1978 started on 14 October, ten days after the funeral. It was split between two strong candidates for the papacy : Cardinal Giuseppe Siri , the conservative Archbishop of Genoa , and Cardinal Giovanni Benelli ,

14168-687: The design being influenced by Le Corbusier 's Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp . Since the fall of the USSR , the city that was once a showpiece for Stalinism now boasts many tributes to ardent opponents of the ideology. Streets formerly named after Vladimir Lenin and the Cuban Revolution have been renamed to honor Pope John Paul II and the Polish World War II hero Władysław Anders . Other streets were renamed after Edward Rydz-Śmigły and Ignacy Mościcki , politicians of

14322-488: The didactic use of literature, art, and music to develop social consciousness in an evolving socialist state". Socialist realism compelled artists of all forms to create positive or uplifting reflections of socialist utopian life by utilizing any visual media, such as posters, movies, newspapers, theater and radio, beginning during the Communist Revolution of 1917 and escalating during the reign of Stalin until

14476-670: The disparity between the wealthy and the poor, was met with thunderous applause. In 2000, he was the first modern pope to visit Egypt, where he met with the Coptic pope , Pope Shenouda III and the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria . He was the first Catholic pope to visit and pray in an Islamic mosque, in Damascus , Syria, in 2001. He visited the Umayyad Mosque , a former Christian church where John

14630-499: The draft text Gaudium et spes that Wojtyła and the Polish delegation sent "had some influence on the version that was sent to the council fathers that summer but was not accepted as the base text". According to John F. Crosby, as pope, John Paul II used the words of Gaudium et spes later to introduce his own views on the nature of the human person in relation to God: man is "the only creature on earth that God has wanted for its own sake", but man "can fully discover his true self only in

14784-525: The early 1920s to its eventual fall from official status beginning in the late 1960s until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. While other countries have employed a prescribed canon of art, socialist realism in the Soviet Union persisted longer and was more restrictive than elsewhere in Europe. Socialist realism was developed by many thousands of artists, across a diverse society, over several decades. Early examples of realism in Russian art include

14938-528: The early 1980s. Vladimir Lenin , head of the Russian government 1917–1924, laid the foundation for this new wave of art, suggesting that art is for the people and the people should love and understand it, while uniting the masses. Artists Naum Gabo and Antoine Pevsner attempted to define the lines of art under Lenin by writing "The Realist Manifesto" in 1920, suggesting that artists should be given free rein to create as their muse desired. Lenin, however, had

15092-483: The early twentieth century. Leon Trotsky argued that cinema is a valuable means for propaganda and education and that it could be used to supplant the influence of the Orthodox Church in Russia . In the early 1930s, Soviet filmmakers applied socialist realism in their work. Notable films include Chapaev , which shows the role of the people in the history-making process. The theme of revolutionary history

15246-498: The first pope in history to visit and pray at the Western Wall . In September 2001, amid post- 11 September concerns, he travelled to Kazakhstan, with an audience largely consisting of Muslims, and to Armenia, to participate in the celebration of 1,700 years of Armenian Christianity . In June 1979, John Paul II travelled to Poland, where ecstatic crowds constantly surrounded him. This first papal trip to Poland uplifted

15400-791: The first pope to visit the White House in October 1979, where he was greeted warmly by President Jimmy Carter . He was the first pope ever to visit several countries in one year, starting in 1979 with Mexico and Ireland . He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom , in 1982, where he met Queen Elizabeth II , the Supreme Governor of the Church of England . While in Britain he also visited Canterbury Cathedral and knelt in prayer with Robert Runcie ,

15554-520: The future Pope John Paul II , who began hosting outdoor Christmas Eve Midnight Masses in 1959, regardless of weather, and replaced the cross every time that it was removed. In 1967, permits to build the desired church were granted, and the Arka Pana ( Lord's Ark Church also translated as the Church of Our Lady Queen of Poland) was under construction from 1969 to 1977. The complex was consecrated by Wojtyla in May 1977. Wojtyla himself, after his ascension to

15708-513: The general acceptance of the classicist form. From 1953, critical opinions were increasingly frequently heard, and the doctrine was finally given up in 1956. To this day, the socrealist city center is considered a monument of architecture. Following the political liberalization of the Polish October in 1956, it became possible to introduce modernist style in architecture. Polish architects were allowed to visit Stockholm to learn about

15862-516: The greenest corner of Kraków. The historic area of present-day Nowa Huta is one of the few places in Poland settled continuously since the neolithic age. Archaeological research has discovered a large Celtic and West Slavic settlement. In the 8th century, a mound was erected nearby by the Vistulans tribe. According to legend, the Wanda Mound is a tomb of Wanda, daughter of Krakus ,

16016-428: The human body that would later help to influence socialist realism. He believed that "the sight of a healthy body, intelligent face or friendly smile was essentially life-enhancing." He concluded that art had a direct effect on the human organism and under the right circumstances that effect could be positive. By depicting "the perfect person" ( New Soviet man ), Lunacharsky believed art could educate citizens on how to be

16170-538: The influential theological book Love and Responsibility , a defence of traditional church teachings on marriage from a new philosophical standpoint. The aforementioned students regularly joined Wojtyła for hiking, skiing, bicycling, camping and kayaking, accompanied by prayer, outdoor Masses and theological discussions. In Stalinist-era Poland, it was not permitted for priests to travel with groups of students. Wojtyła asked his younger companions to call him "Wujek" (Polish for "Uncle") to prevent outsiders from deducing he

16324-421: The international World Youth Days . John Paul II presided over nine of them: Rome (1985 and 2000), Buenos Aires (1987), Santiago de Compostela (1989), Częstochowa (1991), Denver (1993), Manila (1995), Paris (1997), and Toronto (2002). Total attendance at these signature events of the pontificate was in the tens of millions. Keenly aware of the rhythms of time and the importance of anniversaries in

16478-696: The largest ever assembled in human history , such as the Manila World Youth Day 1995 , which gathered up to four million people, the largest papal gathering ever, according to the Vatican. John Paul II's earliest official visits were to the Dominican Republic and Mexico in January 1979. While some of his journeys (such as to the United States and the Holy Land ) were to places previously visited by Pope Paul VI, John Paul II became

16632-564: The liberal Archbishop of Florence and a close friend of John Paul I. Supporters of Benelli were confident that he would be elected, and in early ballots , Benelli came within nine votes of success. However, both men faced sufficient opposition for neither to be likely to prevail. Giovanni Colombo , the Archbishop of Milan , was considered as a compromise candidate among the Italian cardinal-electors, but when he started to receive votes, he announced that, if elected, he would decline to accept

16786-545: The liberation of this concentration camp by detainees in April 1945, is considered one of the most striking examples of socialist realism in GDR sculpture for its representation of communist liberation. Each figure in the monument, erected outside the campsite, has symbolic significance according to the orthodox communist interpretation of the event. Thus communists were portrayed as the driving force behind self-liberation, symbolized by

16940-485: The logical development of the store of knowledge mankind has accumulated under the yoke of capitalist, landowner, and bureaucratic society." Modern art styles appeared to refuse to draw upon this heritage, thus clashing with the long realist tradition in Russia and rendering the art scene complex. Even in Lenin's time, a cultural bureaucracy began to restrain art to fit propaganda purposes . Leon Trotsky 's arguments that

17094-531: The nation's spirit and sparked the formation of the Solidarity movement in 1980, which later brought freedom and human rights to his troubled homeland. Leaders of the Polish United Workers' Party intended to use the pope's visit to show the people that although the pope was Polish, it did not alter their capacity to govern, oppress, and distribute the goods of society. They also hoped that if

17248-456: The necessary expertise along with qualified staff. The presence of good railway links for bringing raw materials and the proximity of the river to supply water also played a role. The site was elevated high enough to avoid flooding, and the historic villages that it replaced were relatively small. All of the above factors quickly made the investment pay off. In line with the then policy of state atheism, one significant type of building lacking from

17402-519: The newest solutions in urban design. As a result, the so-named "Swedish" apartment block was developed according to Le Corbusier guidelines. Among other buildings from that era, the Światowid cinema is worth noting. In the 1980s, the first postmodernist buildings were built, a notable example being the Centrum E housing estate. In the 1970s and 1980s, many apartment blocks were built using plattenbau . Nowa Huta's central "Avenue of Roses" featured

17556-538: The night of 17 January 1945, the Germans fled the city , and the students reclaimed the ruined seminary . Wojtyła and another seminarian volunteered for the task of clearing away piles of frozen excrement from the toilets. Wojtyła also helped a 14-year-old Jewish refugee girl named Edith Zierer, who had escaped from a Nazi labour camp in Częstochowa . Edith had collapsed on a railway platform, so Wojtyła carried her to

17710-464: The non-traditional and the avant-garde were often praised. These styles of art were later rejected by members of the Communist Party who did not appreciate modern styles such as Impressionism and Cubism . Socialist realism was, to some extent, a reaction against the adoption of these "decadent" styles. It was thought by Lenin that the non-representative forms of art were not understood by

17864-606: The norm. According to the Great Russian Encyclopedia , the term was first used in press by chairman of the organizing committee of the Union of Soviet Writers , Ivan Gronsky in Literaturnaya Gazeta on May 23, 1932. The term was approved in meetings that included politicians of the highest level, including Joseph Stalin . Maxim Gorky , a proponent of literary socialist realism, published

18018-411: The original urban design of Nowa Huta was a Roman Catholic church. However, the public campaign to construct such a building lasted several years. As early as 1952, inhabitants of Nowa Huta began applying for consent to build a church. In 1960, violent street demonstrations with riot police erupted over a wooden cross that was erected without a permit. The locals were supported by then Bishop Karol Wojtyla,

18172-474: The other and a permanent stoop after being hit by a lorry in a quarry. His father, a former Austro-Hungarian non-commissioned officer and later officer in the Polish Army , died of a heart attack in 1941, leaving the young adult Wojtyła an orphan and the immediate family's only surviving member. Reflecting on these times of his life, nearly forty years later he said: "I was not at my mother's death, I

18326-473: The papacy. Cardinal Franz König , Archbishop of Vienna , suggested Wojtyła as another compromise candidate to his fellow electors. Wojtyła won on the eighth ballot on the third day (16 October). Among those cardinals who rallied behind Wojtyła were supporters of Giuseppe Siri, Stefan Wyszyński , most of the American cardinals (led by John Krol ), and other moderate cardinals. He accepted his election with

18480-421: The party were partiinost' (party-mindedness), ideinost (idea and ideological content), klassovost (class content), pravdivost (truthfulness). Ideinost was an important concept: not only was the work to embody an approved idea, but its content was more important than its form. This allowed the identification of formalism , a work in which the formal aspects of a work of art commanded more importance than

18634-484: The perfect Soviets. There were two main groups debating the fate of Soviet art: futurists and traditionalists. Russian Futurists , many of whom had been creating abstract or leftist art before the Bolsheviks, believed communism required a complete rupture from the past and, therefore, so did Soviet art. Traditionalists believed in the importance of realistic representations of everyday life. Under Lenin 's rule and

18788-504: The pope abided by the rules they set, the Polish people would see his example and follow them as well. If the pope's visit inspired a riot, the Communist leaders of Poland were prepared to crush the uprising and blame the suffering on the pope. "The pope won that struggle by transcending politics. His was what Joseph Nye calls ' soft power ' — the power of attraction and repulsion. He began with an enormous advantage, and exploited it to

18942-541: The pre-World War II Sanation government. In 2004, Plac Centralny , Nowa Huta's central square, which once was home to a giant statue of Lenin – on display at the High Chaparral Museum in Hillerstorp , Sweden , was renamed Plac Centralny im. Ronalda Reagana ( Ronald Reagan Central Square) in honor of the former US President . However, this decision led to many objections, and the traditional name

19096-417: The previous regime's practice of excessive restrictions. This freedom allowed artists to begin experimenting with new techniques, but the shift was not immediate. It was not until the ultimate fall of Soviet rule that artists were no longer restricted by the deposed Communist Party. Many socialist realist tendencies prevailed until the mid-to-late 1990s and early 2000s. In the 1990s, many Russian artists used

19250-477: The principal consecrator and as co-consecrators Bishop Bolesław Kominek (titular bishop of Sophene ), auxiliary of the Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław , and Franciszek Jop , Auxiliary Bishop of Sandomierz (Titular Bishop of Daulia ). Kominek was to become Cardinal Archbishop of Wrocław and Jop was later Auxiliary Bishop of Wrocław and then Bishop of Opole . At the age of 38, Wojtyła became

19404-414: The products were shipped to other parts of Poland, due to local demand for steel being relatively small. Such disadvantages became visible in the 1980s, when the economic crisis halted the city's growth. Nevertheless, the primacy of political reasons for choosing this location is not obvious. Kraków was a center of learning, with established schools of engineering and scientific research departments, providing

19558-502: The proletariat and could therefore not be used by the state for propaganda. Alexander Bogdanov argued that the radical reformation of society to communist principles meant little if any bourgeois art would prove useful; some of his more radical followers advocated the destruction of libraries and museums. Lenin rejected this philosophy, deplored the rejection of the beautiful because it was old, and explicitly described art as needing to call on its heritage: " Proletarian culture must be

19712-410: The pursuit of wealth. He was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate . As part of his special emphasis on the universal call to holiness , John Paul II beatified 1,344 people , and canonised 483 saints , more than the combined tally of his predecessors during the preceding five centuries. By the time of his death, he had named most of

19866-411: The rest of the world. On 19 December 2009, John Paul II was proclaimed venerable by his successor, Benedict XVI , and on 1 May 2011 ( Divine Mercy Sunday ) he was beatified . On 27 April 2014, he was canonised together with John XXIII . He has been criticised for allegedly, as archbishop, having been insufficiently harsh in acting against the sexual abuse of children by priests in Poland, though

20020-478: The rise of the labor movement was the development of the revolutionary song , which was performed at demonstrations and meetings. Among the most famous of the revolutionary songs are The Internationale and Whirlwinds of Danger . Notable songs from Russia include Boldly, Comrades, in Step , Workers' Marseillaise , and Rage, Tyrants . Folk and revolutionary songs influenced the Soviet mass songs . The mass song

20174-702: The same issues that forbid abortion and artificial birth control . According to a contemporary witness, Wojtyła was against the distribution of a letter around Kraków in 1970, stating that the Polish Episcopate was preparing for the 50th anniversary of the Polish–Soviet War . In 1973, Wojtyła met philosopher Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka , the wife of Hendrik S. Houthakker , professor of economics at Stanford University and Harvard University , and member of President Richard Nixon 's Council of Economic Advisers Tymieniecka collaborated with Wojtyła on

20328-484: The seminary in Kraków, Wojtyła was ordained as a priest on All Saints' Day , 1 November 1946, by the Archbishop of Kraków, Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha. Sapieha sent Wojtyła to Rome's Pontifical International Athenaeum Angelicum , the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas , to study under the French Dominican friar Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange beginning on 26 November 1946. He resided in

20482-490: The style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture, it was also intended to become Poland's socialist national format. However, in the course of incorporating the principles of socialist realism, there were a number of deviations observed. One of these was to more closely reflect Soviet architecture, which resulted in the majority of works blending into one another; and finally,

20636-436: The subject matter, or content. There was a prevailing sense of optimism, as socialist realism's function was to show the ideal Soviet society. Not only was the present glorified, but the future was also supposed to be depicted in an agreeable fashion. Because the present and the future were constantly idealized, socialist realism had a sense of forced optimism. Tragedy and negativity were not permitted, unless they were shown in

20790-482: The utmost: He headed the one institution that stood for the polar opposite of the Communist way of life that the Polish people hated. He was a Pole, but beyond the regime's reach. By identifying with him, Poles would have the chance to cleanse themselves of the compromises they had to make to live under the regime. And so they came to him by the millions. They listened. He told them to be good, not to compromise themselves, to stick by one another, to be fearless, and that God

20944-566: The utopianism of communism and the Soviet state. Art became more than an aesthetic pleasure; instead it served a very specific function. Soviet ideals placed functionality and work above all else; therefore, for art to be admired, it must serve a purpose. Georgi Plekhanov , a Marxist theoretician, states that art is useful if it serves society: "There can be no doubt that art acquired a social significance only in so far as it depicts, evokes, or conveys actions, emotions and events that are of significance to society ." The themes depicted would feature

21098-501: The words: "With obedience in faith to Christ, my Lord, and with trust in the Mother of Christ and the Church, in spite of great difficulties, I accept". The pope, in tribute to his immediate predecessor, then took the regnal name of John Paul II , also in honour of the late Popes Paul VI and John XXIII, and the traditional white smoke informed the crowd gathered in St. Peter's Square that

21252-531: The work of evangelization . "From the beginning of my Pontificate, my thoughts had been on this Holy Year 2000 as an important appointment. I thought of its celebration as a providential opportunity during which the Church, thirty-five years after the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, would examine how far she had renewed herself, in order to be able to take up her evangelising mission with fresh enthusiasm." John Paul II also made

21406-578: The work of the Peredvizhnikis and Ilya Yefimovich Repin . While these works do not have the same political connotation, they exhibit the techniques exercised by their successors. After the Bolsheviks took control of Russia on October 25, 1917, there was a marked shift in artistic styles. There had been a short period of artistic exploration in the time between the fall of the Tsar and the rise of

21560-469: The working class as a rising force of the nation. He published two books of documentary prose, The Communist Man . In the collection of poems A Knife in the Heart Again , Aragon criticizes the penetration of American imperialism into Europe. The novel The Holy Week depicts the artist's path toward the people against a broad social and historical background. Maxim Gorky 's novel Mother (1906)

21714-467: The year before becoming pope, Wojtyła said: "All human life, from the moments of conception and through all subsequent stages, is sacred." A series of 129 lectures given by John Paul II during his Wednesday audiences in Rome between September 1979 and November 1984 were later compiled and published as a single work titled Theology of the Body , an extended meditation on human sexuality . He extended it to

21868-568: The youngest bishop in Poland. In 1959, Wojtyła began an annual tradition of saying a Midnight Mass on Christmas Day in an open field at Nowa Huta , the so-called model workers' town outside Kraków that was without a church building. Baziak died in June 1962 and on 16 July, Wojtyła was selected as Vicar Capitular (temporary administrator) of the Archdiocese until an archbishop could be appointed. From October 1962, Wojtyła took part in

22022-601: Was Fyodor Pavlovich Reshetnikov . Socialist realist art found acceptance in the Baltic nations, inspiring many artists. One such artist was Czeslaw Znamierowski (23 May 1890 – 9 August 1977), a Soviet Lithuanian painter, known for his large panoramic landscapes and love of nature. Znamierowski combined these two passions to create very notable paintings in the Soviet Union, earning the prestigious title of Honorable Artist of LSSR in 1965. Born in Latvia , which formed part of

22176-522: Was a leading genre in Soviet music, especially during the 1930s and the war. The mass song influenced other genres, including the art song, opera, and film music. The most popular mass songs include Dunaevsky 's Song of the Homeland , Isaakovsky 's Katiusha , Novikov's Hymn of Democratic Youth of the World , and Aleksandrov's Sacred War . Discussions of film as a tool of the Soviet state began in

22330-534: Was a priest. The nickname gained popularity among his followers. In 1958, when Wojtyła was named auxiliary bishop of Kraków, his acquaintances expressed concern that this would cause him to change. Wojtyła responded to his friends, "Wujek will remain Wujek," and he continued to live a simple life, shunning the trappings that came with his position as bishop. This beloved nickname stayed with Wojtyła for his entire life and continues to be affectionately used, particularly by

22484-477: Was accepted by the Faculty of Theology at the Jagiellonian University. In 1954, he earned a Doctorate in Sacred Theology , writing a dissertation titled "Reevaluation of the possibility of founding a Catholic ethic on the ethical system of Max Scheler " ( Polish : Ocena możliwości zbudowania etyki chrześcijańskiej przy założeniach systemu Maksa Schelera ). Scheler was a German philosopher who founded

22638-414: Was developed in films such as The Youth of Maxim by Grigori Kozintsev and Leonid Trauberg , Shchors by Dovzhenko, and We are from Kronstadt by E. Dzigan. The shaping of the new man under socialism was a theme of films such as A Start Life by N. Ekk, Ivan by Dovzhenko, Valerii Chkalov by M. Kalatozov and the film version of Tanker "Derbent" (1941). Some films depicted the part of peoples of

22792-569: Was disbanded April 23, 1932 by the decree "On the Reorganization of Literary and Artistic Organizations" serving as the nucleus for the Stalinist USSR Union of Artists . Studio of military artists was created in 1934. The creation of Union of Soviet Writers was partially initiated by Maxim Gorky to unite the Soviet writers of different methods, such as the "proletarian" writers (such as Fyodor Panfyorov ), praised by

22946-487: Was either because they were "decadent", unintelligible to the proletariat, or counter-revolutionary . Pope John Paul II Pope John Paul II ( Latin : Ioannes Paulus II ; Polish : Jan Paweł II ; Italian : Giovanni Paolo II ; born Karol Józef Wojtyła , Polish: [ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛv vɔjˈtɨwa] ; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of

23100-426: Was filled with health and happiness: paintings showed busy industrial and agricultural scenes; sculptures depicted workers, sentries, and schoolchildren. Creativity was not an important part of socialist realism. The styles used in creating art during this period were those that would produce the most realistic results. Painters would depict happy, muscular peasants and workers in factories and collective farms. During

23254-467: Was not at my brother's death, I was not at my father's death. At twenty, I had already lost all the people I loved." After his father's death, he started thinking seriously about the priesthood. In October 1942, while World War II continued, he knocked on the door of the Bishop's Palace , and asked to study for the priesthood. Soon after, he began courses in the clandestine underground seminary run by

23408-590: Was sponsored by influential government officials such as Leon Trotsky and carried favor with the Red Army . In 1928, the AKhRR was renamed to Association of Artists of the Revolution (AKhR) in order to include the rest of the Soviet states. At this point the group had begun participating in state promoted mass forms of art like murals, jointly-made paintings, advertisement production and textile design. The group

23562-417: Was to create what Lenin called "an entirely new type of human being": The New Soviet Man . Art (especially posters and murals) was a way to instill party values on a massive scale. Stalin described the socialist realist artists as "engineers of souls". Common images used in socialist realism were flowers, sunlight, the body, youth, flight, industry, and new technology. These poetic images were used to show

23716-629: Was transferred to the parish of Saint Florian in Kraków. He taught ethics at Jagiellonian University and subsequently at the Catholic University of Lublin . While teaching, he gathered a group of about 20 young people, who began to call themselves Rodzinka , the "little family". They met for prayer, philosophical discussion, and to help the blind and the sick. The group eventually grew to approximately 200 participants, and their activities expanded to include annual skiing and kayaking trips. In 1953, Wojtyła's habilitation thesis

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