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82-442: The park has the longest and best preserved stretch of Atlantic dunes in northern Portugal. The estuaries of Cávado and Neiva are home to some of the most significant habitats in the park. It has around 240 species of plant. 140 species of birds can be observed in the terrestrial area alone. The estuarine zone is an important area for food and rest during migrations and in winter. It has 19 species and 8 potencial species of mammals. It

164-518: A conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life." However, his conclusions were rejected by his advisor, Gustav von Bunge . A similar result by Cornelis Adrianus Pekelharing appeared in Dutch medical journal Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde in 1905, but it was not widely reported. In East Asia , where polished white rice

246-462: A deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage. Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for cellular respiration . For

328-431: A fourteenth, choline . Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Vitamin A acts as a regulator of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. Vitamin D provides a hormone-like function, regulating mineral metabolism for bones and other organs. The B complex vitamins function as enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or the precursors for them. Vitamins C and E function as antioxidants . Both deficient and excess intake of

410-497: A length of several metres. They are generally brown or dark green in color and consist of a holdfast , a stipe , and a frond . Oogonia and antheridia occur in conceptacles embedded in receptacles on special branches. Some species have berrylike gas-filled bladders that help the fronds float to promote photosynthesis . Many have a rough, sticky texture that, along with a robust but flexible body, help them withstand strong water currents. Large, pelagic mats of Sargassum in

492-518: A maximum daily dosage referred to as the tolerable upper intake level (UL or Upper Limit). Vitamin products above these regulatory limits are not considered supplements and should be registered as prescription or non-prescription ( over-the-counter drugs ) due to their potential side effects. The European Union, United States and Japan establish ULs. Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports

574-469: A month to more than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores. Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or

656-407: A multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus develops from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin , bone , and muscle . If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop

738-602: A nearly inexhaustible food supply for animals or people. Variations in sea level , salinity , water temperature, chemical composition, rainfall patterns, and water acidity all play roles in regulating algae blooms . As anthropogenic forces increase the variability of these factors, the frequency, duration, severity and geographic range of harmful algae blooms have increased, causing millions of dollars of lost revenue as well as damaging fragile coastal and coral ecosystems. Vitamin Vitamins are organic molecules (or

820-582: A number of different disorders. Some vitamins have documented acute or chronic toxicity at larger intakes, which is referred to as hypertoxicity. The European Union and the governments of several countries have established Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for those vitamins which have documented toxicity (see table). The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but excessive intake ( vitamin poisoning ) from dietary supplements does occur. In 2016, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multi-vitamin/mineral formulations

902-700: A prescription. For most vitamins, pharmacopoeial standards have been established. In the United States, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market. The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K

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984-536: A range of biological and ecological impacts in affected regions. The decomposition of large quantities of Sargassum along coastlines consumes oxygen, creating large oxygen-depleted zones resulting in fish kills. Decomposing Sargassum additionally creates hydrogen sulfide gas ( H 2 S ), which causes a range of health impacts in humans. During the Sargassum inundation event in 2018, 11,000 Acute Sargassum Toxicity cases were reported in an 8-month span on just

1066-639: A relatively low level of phenolics and tannins occurs. In limited amounts, washed-ashore Sargassum plays an important role in maintaining Atlantic and Caribbean coastal ecosystems. Once ashore, Sargassum provides vital nutrients such as carbon , nitrogen , and phosphorus to coastal ecosystems which border the nutrient-poor waters of the western North Atlantic tropics and subtropics. Additionally, it decreases coastal erosion . Beginning in 2011, unprecedented quantities of Sargassum began inundating coastal areas in record amounts. Coastlines in Brazil ,

1148-470: A resource for food until they reach a size at which they can survive elsewhere. This community is being affected by humans due to overfishing, trash and other types of pollution, and boat traffic, which could eventually lead to the demise of this diverse and unique habitat. Below is a list of organisms that are associated with the Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea plays a major role in

1230-483: A rice-based diet, and that the symptoms were reversed when the chickens were switched to whole-grain rice. He called this "the anti-beriberi factor", which was later identified as vitamin B 1 , thiamine. In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta-carotene , the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified other carotenoids . Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent-Györgyi's discovery of ascorbic acid and made significant contributions to

1312-640: A rich source of vitamins , carotenoids , proteins , and minerals. Many bioactive chemical compounds that are classified as terpenoids , sterols , sulfated polysaccharides , polyphenols , sargaquinoic acids, sargachromanol , and pheophytin were isolated from different Sargassum species. These isolated compounds and/or extracts exhibit diverse biological activities, including analgesic , anti-inflammatory , antioxidant , neuroprotective , anti-microbial , anti-tumor , fibrinolytic , immune-modulatory , anticoagulant , hepatoprotective , and anti-viral activities. Species of this genus of algae may grow to

1394-407: A set of closely related molecules called vitamers ) that are essential to an organism in small quantities for proper metabolic function. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism in sufficient quantities for survival, and therefore must be obtained through the diet . For example, vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others; it is not considered a vitamin in

1476-537: A source of vitamin D, as "bottled sunshine", and bananas as a "natural vitality food". They promoted foods such as yeast cakes, a source of B vitamins, on the basis of scientifically determined nutritional value, rather than taste or appearance. In 1942, when flour enrichment with nicotinic acid began, a headline in the popular press said "Tobacco in Your Bread." In response, the Council on Foods and Nutrition of

1558-550: A special category under the general umbrella of foods , not drugs. As a result, the manufacturer, and not the government, has the responsibility of ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the United States , a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. There

1640-444: A vitamin can potentially cause clinically significant illness, although excess intake of water-soluble vitamins is less likely to do so. All the vitamins were discovered between 1913 and 1948. Historically, when intake of vitamins from diet was lacking, the results were vitamin deficiency diseases. Then, starting in 1935, commercially produced tablets of yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C became available. This

1722-486: Is European Union equivalent of RDA; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. For Thiamin and Niacin the PRIs are expressed as amounts per MJ of calories consumed. MJ = megajoule = 239 food calories. UL or Upper Limit Tolerable upper intake levels. ND ULs have not been determined. NE EARs have not been established. In those who are otherwise healthy, there

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1804-508: Is a genus of brown macroalgae ( seaweed ) in the order Fucales of the Phaeophyceae class. Numerous species are distributed throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world, where they generally inhabit shallow water and coral reefs, and the genus is widely known for its planktonic (free-floating) species. Most species within the class Phaeophyceae are predominantly cold-water organisms that benefit from nutrients upwelling, but

1886-418: Is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin ; it is deactivated by cooking. Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular structure similar to thiamine, vitamin B 1 , and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine. Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of

1968-532: Is an area of intense agricultural activity, namely in masseiras, also called troughs, cultivated fields dug in the sand next to the dunes until very close to the water table, which thus ensure water and protection from the winds to the crops. This coast is one of the traditional places for gathering sargassum , which was collected in June and dried in the sun. Indeed, the sands of the Minho coast were fertilized thanks to

2050-431: Is important. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Vitamins A and D can accumulate in the body, which can result in dangerous hypervitaminosis . Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency due to malabsorption is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis . Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin

2132-559: Is likely that an unknown nutrient threshold was reached and surpassed. Given current agricultural policies and practices, it is unlikely these inundation events will disappear on their own without human intervention. Japanese cuisine as well as Chile have traditionally consumed Sargassum , known as hijiki , although it contains high amounts of arsenic , part of the arsenic cycle from groundwater, waterways, into oceans and back to land. There are methods to process and greatly reduce arsenic from this genus of seaweed, potentially making it

2214-725: Is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease . Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful. A 2018 meta-analysis found no evidence that intake of vitamin D or calcium for community-dwelling elderly people reduced bone fractures. Europe has regulations that define limits of vitamin (and mineral) dosages for their safe use as dietary supplements. Most vitamins that are sold as dietary supplements are not supposed to exceed

2296-694: Is located in a region heavily affected by Trade winds . Trade winds are strong, consistent northeasterlies winds which blow dust-filled dry air from the Sahara across the Atlantic. Trade winds additionally play a critical role in the annual hurricane season in the Western Atlantic. The Caribbean Current and Antilles branch of the Atlantic North Equatorial Current are the major current transporters of Sargassum in

2378-489: Is no FDA approval process for dietary supplements, and no requirement that manufacturers prove the safety or efficacy of supplements introduced before 1994. The Food and Drug Administration must rely on its Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements. In 2007, the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) in

2460-423: Is not the point of origin of inundating Sargassum . Sargassum natans I and Sargassum fluitans III are the dominant Sargassum species found in the Sargasso Sea. Recent net sampling studies have found Sargassum natans VIII , a previously rare type, is constituting a dominating percentage of Sargassum biodiversity in the Western Atlantic and Sargasso Sea. Unprecedented Sargassum inundation events cause

2542-508: Is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan . Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others. Vitamin B 12 is the only vitamin or nutrient not available from plant sources. The Food Fortification Initiative lists countries which have mandatory fortification programs for vitamins folic acid, niacin, vitamin A and vitamins B 1 , B 2 and B 12 . The body's stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B 12 are stored in significant amounts, mainly in

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2624-677: The Amazon River , increased nutrients in the Gulf of Mexico , and coastal upwelling off the West African Coast which transfers deep nutrient -rich waters to the upper water column where Sargassum resides. Nutrient output from the Amazon River has been shown to have a direct delayed effect on large inundation events, which occur one to two years after years of high nutrient output. Phosphates and iron transported via

2706-607: The American Medical Association approved of the Food and Nutrition Board 's new names niacin and niacin amide for use primarily by non-scientists. It was thought appropriate to choose a name to dissociate nicotinic acid from nicotine , to avoid the perception that vitamins or niacin-rich food contains nicotine, or that cigarettes contain vitamins. The resulting name niacin was derived from ni cotinic ac id + vitam in . Researchers also focused on

2788-561: The Caribbean , Gulf of Mexico , and the east coast of Florida saw quantities of Sargassum wash ashore up to three feet deep. The first major Sargassum inundation event occurred in 2011 and had a biomass increase of 200 fold compared to the previous eight years average bloom size. Since 2011 increasingly stronger inundation events have occurred every 2–3 years. During a Sargassum inundation event in 2018, one Sargassum bloom measured over 1600 square kilometers, more than three times

2870-610: The Gulf Stream , to travel to the Sargasso Sea, where they use the Sargassum as cover from predators until they are mature. Sargassum also serve as a trophic link between the ocean surface and the seabed. Isopods of the species Bathyopsurus nybelini at depths of 5002-6288 m in the Puerto Rico Trench and Mid-Cayman spreading center have been observed consuming Sargassum . They even exhibit several adaptations for it, such as microbiomes capable of breaking down

2952-497: The Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine . Funk created the name from vital and amine , because it appeared that these organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary-deficiency diseases were required for life, hence "vital", and were chemical amines, hence "amine". This was true of thiamine , but after it was found that vitamin C and other such micronutrients were not amines,

3034-417: The Sargassum and allow them to be impressively camouflaged in their environment. In total, these Sargassum mats are home to more than 11 phyla and over 100 different species. There is also a total of 81 fish species (36 families represented) that reside in the Sargassum or utilize it for parts of their life cycles. Other marine organisms, such as young sea turtles, will use the Sargassum as shelter and

3116-596: The Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums , severe pain, and death. In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy , which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy , which was adopted by the British Royal Navy . This led to

3198-434: The liver , and an adult's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B 12 in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B 3 (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks. For vitamin C, the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from

3280-604: The migration of catadromous eel species such as the European eel , the American eel , and the American conger eel . The larvae of these species hatch within the sea and as they grow they travel to Europe or the East Coast of North America. Later in life, the matured eel migrates back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and lay eggs . It is also believed that after hatching, young loggerhead sea turtles use currents, such as

3362-575: The Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique . Massive amounts of floating Sargassum present a physical barrier preventing corals and seagrasses from receiving sufficient light, fouling boat propellers, and entangling marine turtles and mammals. With every Sargassum inundation event, large amounts of nutrients are transported from the open ocean to coastal environments. This greatly increases nutrient transport, and its effect on marine and coastal ecosystems are still unknown. Understanding

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3444-498: The European Union (same concept as RDAs), followed by what three government organizations deem to be the safe upper intake. RDAs are set higher than EARs to cover people with higher than average needs. Adequate Intakes (AIs) are set when there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs. Governments are slow to revise information of this nature. For the U.S. values, with the exception of calcium and vitamin D, all of

3526-597: The Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine "...for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye." Wald's contribution was discovering the role vitamin A had in the process. Once discovered, vitamins were actively promoted in articles and advertisements in McCall's , Good Housekeeping , and other media outlets. Marketers enthusiastically promoted cod-liver oil ,

3608-439: The Sargasso Sea act as one of the only habitats available for ecosystem development; this is because the Sargasso Sea lacks any land boundaries. The Sargassum patches act as a refuge for many species in different parts of their development, but also as a permanent residence for endemic species that can only be found living on and within the Sargassum . These endemic organisms have specialized patterns and colorations that mimic

3690-655: The algae, as it hosts a large amount of Sargassum . The size of annual blooms in the Atlantic increased by over a hundred-fold, starting in 2011, as a result of factors including increased fertilizer runoff in major rivers such as the Amazon and Congo . ( need source ) Sargassum was named by the Portuguese sailors who found it in the Sargasso Sea . They called it after the wooly rock rose ( Halimium lasianthum ) that grew in their water wells at home, and that

3772-411: The average size. Recent inundation events have caused millions of dollars of lost revenue in the tourism industry, especially hurting small Caribbean countries whose economies are highly dependent on seasonal tourism. While the Sargasso Sea is a known source of Sargassum blooms, variations in the Sargassum types composing these inundation events have led researchers to believe that the Sargasso Sea

3854-545: The beneficial effects of which are questionable. As one example, in the 1950s, the Wonder Bread company sponsored the Howdy Doody television show, with host Buffalo Bob Smith telling the audience, "Wonder Bread builds strong bodies 8 ways", referring to the number of added nutrients . The term "vitamin" was derived from "vitamine", a portmanteau coined in 1912 by the biochemist Casimir Funk while working at

3936-448: The benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food. Most countries place dietary supplements in

4018-670: The causes and drivers of Sargassum inundations is critical as they become more commonplace. The Sargasso Sea, a known source area for Sargassum blooms, is classified as an oligotrophic region. With warm, oxygen-poor waters and low nutrient contents, biomass production is limited by what little nutrients are present. Historically, low nutrient levels in the Sargasso Sea have limited Sargassum production. New influxes of nitrogen and phosphorus are driving factors in increased biomass production. Recent studies have found three likely drivers of nutrient influx linked to increasing Sargassum biomass: an increase in nutrient output from

4100-624: The chemistry of flavins , which led to the identification of lactoflavin . For their investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B 2 , they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937. In 1931, Albert Szent-Györgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actually vitamin C , and gave a sample to Charles Glen King , who proved its activity counter to scurvy in his long-established guinea pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Györgyi

4182-405: The data date to 1997–2004. All values are consumption per day: EAR US Estimated Average Requirements. RDA US Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. AI US and EFSA Adequate Intake; AIs established when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs. PRI Population Reference Intake

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4264-491: The essential vitamins, notably vitamins D and E. Well-researched human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin ( pellagra ), vitamin C (scurvy), folate (neural tube defects) and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed world these deficiencies are rare due to an adequate supply of food and the addition of vitamins to common foods. In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and

4346-461: The first instance but is in the second. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. For example, there are eight vitamers of vitamin E : four tocopherols and four tocotrienols . The term vitamin does not include the three other groups of essential nutrients : minerals , essential fatty acids , and essential amino acids . Major health organizations list thirteen vitamins: Some sources include

4428-467: The first person to receive an award mentioning vitamins, even though it was not specifically about vitamin D. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1929 was awarded to Christiaan Eijkman and Frederick Gowland Hopkins for their contributions to the discovery of vitamins. Thirty-five years earlier, Eijkman had observed that chickens fed polished white rice developed neurological symptoms similar to those observed in military sailors and soldiers fed

4510-403: The functions of the human body. In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki , who succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later Orizanin ). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal. When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it

4592-410: The genus Sargassum appears to be an exception. Any number of the normally benthic species may take on a planktonic , often pelagic existence after being removed from reefs during rough weather. Two species ( S. natans and S. fluitans ) have become holopelagic—reproducing vegetatively and never attaching to the seafloor during their lifecycles. The Atlantic Ocean 's Sargasso Sea was named after

4674-406: The hypothesis that other diseases, such as rickets, pellagra, coeliac disease, and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins. Max Nierenstein a friend and Reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University reportedly suggested the "vitamine" name (from "vital amine"). The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines , the word

4756-507: The manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Even though product registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements. In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without

4838-472: The most obvious macrophyte in near-shore areas where Sargassum beds often occur near coral reefs . The plants grow subtidally and attach to coral, rocks, or shells in moderately exposed or sheltered rocky or pebble areas. These tropical populations often undergo seasonal cycles of growth and decay in concert with seasonal changes in sea temperature. In tropical Sargassum species that are often preferentially consumed by herbivorous fishes and echinoids ,

4920-446: The most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the gut flora produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength of ultraviolet light present in sunlight . Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume: for example, vitamin A is synthesized from beta carotene ; and niacin

5002-444: The need to ensure adequate nutrition, especially to compensate for what was lost in the manufacture of processed foods . Robert W. Yoder is credited with first using the term vitamania , in 1942, to describe the appeal of relying on nutritional supplements rather than on obtaining vitamins from a varied diet of foods. The continuing preoccupation with a healthy lifestyle led to an obsessive consumption of vitamins and multi-vitamins,

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5084-543: The nickname limey for British sailors. However, during the 19th century, limes grown in the West Indies were substituted for lemons; these were subsequently found to be much lower in vitamin C. As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases . In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic , the prevailing medical theory

5166-443: The percentage losses of various nutrients from food types and cooking methods. Some vitamins may become more "bio-available" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into

5248-558: The region. Researchers have recently begun using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer satellite imagery and ocean current data to track and forecast inundation events with a high level of accuracy. The effects of deforestation , waste-water runoff , and commercial agriculture fertilizer on facilitating the excess accumulation of nutrients in aquatic and marine environments have been well studied and shown to be driving factors in eutrophication . Since detrimental Sargassum inundation events did not begin until 2011, it

5330-421: The seaweed and fixing nitrogen, specialized swimming strokes, and serrated, grinding mouthparts. Organisms found in the pelagic Sargassum patches, Sargassum is commonly found in the beach drift near Sargassum beds, where they are also known as gulfweed , a term that also can mean all seaweed species washed up on shore. Sargassum species are found throughout tropical areas of the world and are often

5412-457: The species S. pallidum , or more rarely, hijiki , S. fusiforme —in doses of 0.5 grams dissolved in warm water and drunk as a tea. It is called 海藻 ; hǎizǎo in traditional Chinese medicine , where it is used to resolve "heat phlegm". Sargassum ( F. Sargassaceae ) is an important seaweed excessively distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Different species of Sargassum have folk applications in human nutrition and are considered

5494-524: The trade winds from North Africa have been reported to have a fertilizing effect on Sargassum growth; further data is required to understand its role in causing inundating blooms. Researchers globally agree that continued research is required to quantify the effect of marine chemical changes and other environmental factors in the recent increase in Sargassum biomass and inundation events. The physical drivers behind Sargassum inundation events are prevailing winds and ocean surface currents. The Caribbean

5576-474: The use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency, but may be consuming less than the recommended amounts; a national food and supplement survey conducted in the US over 2003–2006 reported that over 90% of individuals who did not consume vitamin supplements were found to have inadequate levels of some of

5658-533: The use of seaweed and pilado (small crustacean), for many years the main fertilizers used. The festa dos sargaceiros of Apulia, with their typical costumes, is just one of the many festivities that take place here. This Braga District location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a protected area in Europe is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sargassum See list Sargassum

5740-576: The water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded. In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do not necessarily agree on amounts needed to avoid deficiency or maximum amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity. For example, for vitamin C, recommended intakes range from 40 mg/day in India to 155 mg/day for the European Union. The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins, PRIs for

5822-579: The word was shortened to "vitamin" in English. Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble . In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake

5904-514: Was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish-born biochemist Casimir Funk , working in London, isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine". It was later to be known as vitamin B 3 (niacin), though he described it as "anti-beri-beri-factor" (which would today be called thiamine or vitamin B 1 ). Funk proposed

5986-469: Was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, hence "vitamin", after researchers began to suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component. The Nobel Prize for Chemistry for 1928 was awarded to Adolf Windaus "for his studies on the constitution of the sterols and their connection with vitamins",

6068-689: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1938, Richard Kuhn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on carotenoids and vitamins, specifically B 2 and B 6 . Five people have been awarded Nobel Prizes for direct and indirect studies of vitamin B 12 : George Whipple , George Minot and William P. Murphy (1934), Alexander R. Todd (1957), and Dorothy Hodgkin (1964). In 1967, George Wald , Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline were awarded

6150-669: Was called sargaço in Portuguese ( Portuguese pronunciation: [sɐɾˈɣasu] ) - from the Latin salicastrum . The Florida Keys and mainland South Florida are well known for the high levels of Sargassum covering their shores. Sargassum or gulfweed was observed by Columbus . Although the seaweed acquired a legendary reputation for covering the entirety of the Sargasso Sea, making navigation impossible, it has since been found to occur only in drifts. Sargassum species are cultivated and cleaned for use as an herbal remedy. Many Chinese herbalists prescribe powdered Sargassum —either

6232-536: Was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but they mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it. That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies

6314-648: Was followed in the 1950s by the mass production and marketing of vitamin supplements , including multivitamins , to prevent vitamin deficiencies in the general population. Governments have mandated the addition of some vitamins to staple foods such as flour or milk, referred to as food fortification , to prevent deficiencies. Recommendations for folic acid supplementation during pregnancy reduced risk of infant neural tube defects . from plant origin as provitamin A / all- trans -beta-carotene: orange, ripe yellow fruits, leafy vegetables, carrots, pumpkin, squash, spinach The value of eating certain foods to maintain health

6396-414: Was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman , who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent a kind of polyneuritis that was the equivalent of beriberi. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors" – in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats etc.  – that are necessary for

6478-477: Was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person may help with night blindness , an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency. The advance of ocean voyages during the Age of Discovery resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews. In 1747,

6560-530: Was reported by 63,931 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers with 72% of these exposures in children under the age of five. In the US, analysis of a national diet and supplement survey reported that about 7% of adult supplement users exceeded the UL for folate and 5% of those older than age 50 years exceeded the UL for vitamin A. The USDA has conducted extensive studies on

6642-505: Was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food . In 1881, Russian medical doctor Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy at the University of Tartu . He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins , fats , carbohydrates , and salts . The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made

6724-581: Was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B 1 was endemic . In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro , a British-trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy , observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships ; one crew

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