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129-408: Kraft Foods Inc. ( / ˈ k r æ f t / ) was a multinational confectionery , food and beverage conglomerate . It marketed many brands in more than 170 countries. Twelve of its brands annually earned more than $ 1 billion worldwide: Cadbury , Jacobs , Kraft, LU , Maxwell House , Milka , Nabisco , Oreo , Oscar Mayer , Philadelphia , Trident , and Tang . Forty of its brands were at least

258-493: A can opener by Robert Yeates in 1855. A less aggressive method was developed by French chemist Louis Pasteur during an 1864 summer holiday in Arbois . To remedy the frequent acidity of the local aged wines , he found out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about 50–60 °C (122–140 °F) for a short time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could subsequently be aged without sacrificing

387-489: A refrigerated shelf life of two to three weeks, whereas ultra-pasteurized milk can last much longer, sometimes two to three months. When ultra-heat treatment ( UHT ) is combined with sterile handling and container technology (such as aseptic packaging ), it can even be stored non-refrigerated for up to 9 months. According to the Centers for Disease Control , between 1998 and 2011, 79% of dairy-related disease outbreaks in

516-488: A tin can , so creating the modern-day process of canning foods. In 1812, the Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves . Just a decade later, Appert's method of canning had made its way to America. Tin can production was not common until the beginning of the 20th century, partly because a hammer and chisel were needed to open cans until the invention of

645-766: A basis in a national ethos , being ultimate without a specific nationhood, and that this lack of an ethos appears in their ways of operating as they enter into contracts with countries that have low human rights or environmental standards . In the world economy facilitated by multinational corporations, capital will increasingly be able to play workers, communities, and nations off against one another as they demand tax, regulation and wage concessions while threatening to move. In other words, increased mobility of multinational corporations benefits capital while workers and communities lose. Some negative outcomes generated by multinational corporations include increased inequality , unemployment , and wage stagnation . Raymond Vernon presents

774-762: A century old. The company was headquartered in Northfield, Illinois , near Chicago . Kraft was listed on the New York Stock Exchange and became a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average on September 22, 2008, replacing the American International Group . In August 2011, the company announced plans to split into a North American grocery products business and a faster-growing global snacks company. The snack company, Mondelez International Inc.

903-508: A corporation invests in a country in which it is not domiciled, it is called foreign direct investment (FDI). Countries may place restrictions on direct investment; for example, China has historically required partnerships with local firms or special approval for certain types of investments by foreigners, although some of these restrictions were eased in 2019. Similarly, the United States Committee on Foreign Investment in

1032-429: A free market system where there is little government interference. As a result, international wealth is maximized with free exchange of goods and services. To many economic liberals, multinational corporations are the vanguard of the liberal order. They are the embodiment par excellence of the liberal ideal of an interdependent world economy. They have taken the integration of national economies beyond trade and money to

1161-621: A full range of dairy products. By 1930 it was the largest dairy company in the United States and the world, exceeding Borden . McInnerney operated the Hydrox Corporation , an ice cream company located in Chicago, Illinois. In 1923 he went to Wall Street to convince investment bankers there to finance his scheme for consolidating the United States ice cream industry. He initially found " hard sledding " with one banker saying

1290-517: A heat exchanger, the product flows through a hold tube for a set period of time to achieve the required treatment. If pasteurization temperature or time is not achieved, a flow diversion valve is used to divert under-processed product back to the raw product tank. If the product is adequately processed, it is cooled in a heat exchanger, then filled. Direct microbiological techniques are the ultimate measurement of pathogen contamination, but these are costly and time-consuming, which means that products have

1419-449: A lower-temperature process. Because of its mild heat treatment, pasteurization increases the shelf-life by a few days or weeks. However, this mild heat also means there are only minor changes to heat-labile vitamins in the foods. According to a systematic review and meta-analysis, it was found that pasteurization appeared to reduce concentrations of vitamins B12 and E , but it also increased concentrations of vitamin A . However, in

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1548-490: A million troops to help, and by February 1991, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. Due to the oil boycott from Kuwait and Iran, oil prices rose and quickly recovered. Saudi Arabia once again led OPEC, and thanks to assistance in defending Kuwait, new relations emerged between the USA and OPEC. Operation "Desert Storm" brought mutual dependence among the main oil producers. OPEC continued to influence global oil prices but recognized

1677-859: A new entity ( Premark International, Inc. ) while changing its name back to Kraft, Inc. Premark was bought by Illinois Tool Works in 1999. In 1988, Kraft sold Duracell to private equity firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts , who then put it into an initial public offering in 1989. Gillette bought Duracell in 1996, and itself was acquired by Procter and Gamble in 2005. At the end of 1988, Philip Morris Companies purchased Kraft for $ 12.9 billion. In 1989, Kraft merged with Philip Morris's General Foods unit—makers of Oscar Mayer meats, Maxwell House coffee, Jell-O gelatin, Budget Gourmet frozen dinners, Entenmann's baked goods, Kool-Aid , Crystal Light and Tang powdered beverage mixes , Post Cereals , Shake 'n Bake flavored coatings and numerous other packaged foods—as Kraft General Foods. Its aggressive product development

1806-469: A new method to preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810. Later that year, Appert published L'Art de conserver les substances animales et végétales (" The Art of Preserving Animal and Vegetable Substances "). This was the first cookbook on modern food preservation methods. La Maison Appert ' The House of Appert ' , in

1935-455: A precaution, modern HTST pasteurization processes must be designed with flow-rate restriction as well as divert valves which ensure that the milk is heated evenly and that no part of the milk is subject to a shorter time or a lower temperature. It is common for the temperatures to exceed 72 °C (162 °F) by 1.5–2 °C (2.7–3.6 °F). Pasteurization is not sterilization and does not kill spores. "Double" pasteurization, which involves

2064-406: A reduced shelf-life by the time pasteurization is verified. As a result of the unsuitability of microbiological techniques, milk pasteurization efficacy is typically monitored by checking for the presence of alkaline phosphatase , which is denatured by pasteurization. Destruction of alkaline phosphatase ensures the destruction of common milk pathogens. Therefore, the presence of alkaline phosphatase

2193-571: A result of enzymatic and non-enzymatic transformations in the structure of pectin if the processing temperatures are too high as a result. However, with mild heat treatment pasteurization, tissue softening in the vegetables that causes textural loss is not of concern as long as the temperature does not get above 80 °C (176 °F). "Pasteurizing" in the broad sense refers to any method that reduces microbes by an amount ( log reduction ) equivalent to Pasteur's process. Novel processes, thermal and non-thermal, have been developed to pasteurize foods as

2322-472: A result of the fact that dairy, other than cheese, was now only a minor part of the company's sales. Reorganization also occurred after the name change. In 1980, Kraft merged with Dart Industries —makers of the Duracell brand of batteries , Tupperware brand of plastic containers, West Bend brand of home appliances , Wilsonart brand of plastics and Thatcher glass—to form Dart & Kraft . During

2451-631: A revised offer from Kraft, valuing the confectionery business at $ 19.5 billion (£11.5 billion). The funding for the takeover was partially provided by the Royal Bank of Scotland , the British part-state-owned bank. The Cadbury purchase was part of the long-term strategy of Irene Rosenfeld , CEO and Kraft Chairman since March 2007, who developed a three-year turnaround plan designed to drive the profitable growth of Kraft Foods. Rosenfeld wanted to develop new markets and expand product range when she assumed

2580-416: A secondary heating process, can extend shelf life by killing spores that have germinated. The acceptance of double pasteurization varies by jurisdiction. In places where it is allowed, milk is initially pasteurized when it is collected from the farm so it does not spoil before processing. Many countries prohibit the labelling of such milk as "pasteurized" but allow it to be marked "thermized", which refers to

2709-619: A way of reducing the effects on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods and preventing degradation of heat-labile nutrients. Pascalization or high pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), ionising radiation , high pressure homogenisation , UV decontamination , pulsed high intensity light , high intensity laser , pulsed white light , high power ultrasound , oscillating magnetic fields , high voltage arc discharge , and streamer plasma are examples of these non-thermal pasteurization methods that are currently commercially utilized. Microwave volumetric heating (MVH)

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2838-547: Is a mild heat treatment of liquid foods (both packaged and unpackaged) where products are typically heated to below 100 °C (212 °F). The heat treatment and cooling process are designed to inhibit a phase change of the product. The acidity of the food determines the parameters (time and temperature) of the heat treatment as well as the duration of shelf life. Parameters also take into account nutritional and sensory qualities that are sensitive to heat. In acidic foods (with pH of 4.6 or less), such as fruit juice and beer ,

2967-486: Is a priority market for us, where we focus on power brands like Cadbury chocolate." Multinational corporation Most of the current largest and most influential companies are publicly traded multinational corporations, including Forbes Global 2000 companies. The history of multinational corporations began with the history of colonialism . The first multi-national corporations were founded to set up colonial "factories" or port cities. The two main examples were

3096-587: Is an ideal indicator of pasteurization efficacy. For liquid eggs , the effectiveness of the heat treatment is measured by the residual activity of α-amylase . During the early 20th century, there was no robust knowledge of what time and temperature combinations would inactivate pathogenic bacteria in milk, and so a number of different pasteurization standards were in use. By 1943, both HTST pasteurization conditions of 72 °C (162 °F) for 15 seconds, as well as batch pasteurization conditions of 63 °C (145 °F) for 30 minutes, were confirmed by studies of

3225-411: Is composed of many thin vertical stainless steel plates that separate the liquid from the heating or cooling medium. Shell and tube heat exchangers are often used for the pasteurization of foods that are non-Newtonian fluids , such as dairy products, tomato ketchup and baby foods. A tube heat exchanger is made up of concentric stainless steel tubes. Food passes through the inner tube or tubes, while

3354-400: Is necessary. High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, such as that used for milk (71.5 °C (160.7 °F) for 15 seconds) ensures safety of milk and provides a refrigerated shelf life of approximately two weeks. In ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurization, milk is pasteurized at 135 °C (275 °F) for 1–2 seconds, which provides the same level of safety, but along with

3483-410: Is often handled through international arbitration . The actions of multinational corporations are strongly supported by economic liberalism and free market system in a globalized international society. According to the economic realist view, individuals act in rational ways to maximize their self-interest and therefore, when individuals act rationally, markets are created and they function best in

3612-536: Is recognized as the old Kraft Foods Inc.'s legal successor, while the grocery company was named Kraft Foods , now a part of Kraft Heinz . Kraft Foods traced its roots to the National Dairy Products Corporation, formed on December 10, 1923, by Thomas H. McInerney and Edward E. Rieck. The firm was initially set up to execute on a rollup strategy in the fragmented United States ice cream industry. Through acquisitions it expanded into

3741-429: Is related to the homogenization step that takes place prior to pasteurization. Before pasteurization milk is homogenized to emulsify its fat and water-soluble components, which results in the pasteurized milk having a whiter appearance compared to raw milk. For vegetable products, color degradation is dependent on the temperature conditions and the duration of heating. Pasteurization may result in some textural loss as

3870-460: Is stored at ambient temperature, bacteria and other pathogens soon proliferate. The US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) says improperly handled raw milk is responsible for nearly three times more hospitalizations than any other food-borne disease source, making it one of the world's most dangerous food products. Diseases prevented by pasteurization can include tuberculosis , brucellosis , diphtheria , scarlet fever , and Q-fever ; it also kills

3999-406: Is used. Most liquid foods are pasteurized by using a continuous process that passes the food through a heating zone, a hold tube to keep it at the pasteurization temperature for the desired time, and a cooling zone, after which the product is filled into the package. Plate heat exchangers are often used for low- viscosity products such as animal milks, nut milks and juices. A plate heat exchanger

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4128-865: Is usually a large corporation incorporated in one country that produces or sells goods or services in various countries. Two common characteristics shared by MNCs are their large size and centrally controlled worldwide activities. MNCs may gain from their global presence in a variety of ways. First of all, MNCs can benefit from the economy of scale by spreading R&D expenditures and advertising costs over their global sales, pooling global purchasing power over suppliers, and utilizing their technological and managerial experience globally with minimal additional costs. Furthermore, MNCs can use their global presence to take advantage of underpriced labor services available in certain developing countries and gain access to special R&D capabilities residing in advanced foreign countries. The problem of moral and legal constraints upon

4257-980: The British East India Company founded in 1600 and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) founded in 1602. In addition to carrying on trade between Great Britain and its colonies, the British East India Company became a quasi-government in its own right, with local government officials and its own army in India. Other examples include the Swedish Africa Company founded in 1649 and the Hudson's Bay Company founded in 1670. These early corporations engaged in international trade and exploration and set up trading posts. The Dutch government took over

4386-474: The U.S. Army for military rations during World War I . In 1916, the company began national advertising and had made its first acquisition—a Canadian cheese company. In 1924, the company changed its name to Kraft Cheese Company and listed on the Chicago Stock Exchange . In the 1925, Marye Dahnke began her career at Kraft as the company home economist, the first woman for that sector of

4515-576: The United States in 1903 and started a wholesale door-to-door cheese business in Chicago; its first year of operations was "dismal", losing US$ 3,000 and a horse. It then took hold and Kraft was joined by his four brothers to form J.L. Kraft and Bros. Company in 1909. As early as 1911, circulars and advertisements were in use by the company. In 1912, the company established its New York City headquarters to prepare for its international expansion. By 1914, 31 varieties of cheese were sold around

4644-688: The dairy industry and other food processing industries for food preservation and food safety . By the year 1999, most liquid products were heat treated in a continuous system where heat is applied using a heat exchanger or the direct or indirect use of hot water and steam. Due to the mild heat, there are minor changes to the nutritional quality and sensory characteristics of the treated foods. Pascalization or high pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric field (PEF) are non-thermal processes that are also used to pasteurize foods. Heating wine for preservation has been known in China since AD 1117, and

4773-462: The 1980s, Dart & Kraft offered mixed results to its shareholders, as new acquisitions in the food business—such as Churny premium cheeses, Lender's Bagels , Frusen Gladje ice cream and Celestial Seasonings tea—slightly offset the lagging nonfood business—Tupperware's decrease in sales and KitchenAid 's (acquired soon after the merger) slide in market share—leading Dart & Kraft to spin off its nonfood business (except Duracell batteries) into

4902-670: The 19th century, such as the Rio Tinto company founded in 1873, which started with the purchase of sulfur and copper mines from the Spanish government. Rio Tinto, now based in London and Melbourne , Australia, has made many acquisitions and expanded globally to mine aluminum , iron ore , copper , uranium , and diamonds . European mines in South Africa began opening in the late 19th century, producing gold and other minerals for

5031-482: The Cadbury distribution in developing markets of India, Brazil and Mexico. As incomes rise in these developing nations, Kraft hopes that products such as Oreo will become impulse buys for children. Mars, Inc. is second in the confectionery market with 14.6% share, followed by Nestlé with 7.8%. At the time of the purchase, the chocolate and sugar industry had been growing rapidly at 15% over the previous three years and

5160-551: The English language. Senior officials, although mostly still Swedish, all learned English and all major internal documents were in English, the lingua franca of multinational corporations. After the war, the number of businesses having at least one foreign country operation rose drastically from a few thousand to 78,411 in 2007. Meanwhile, 74% of parent companies are located in economically advanced countries. Developing and former communist countries such as China, India, and Brazil are

5289-542: The French company, Kraft's announcement was not met with the same protests, in part because Kraft agreed not to close French factories and keep the new merged divisions headquarters near Paris for at least three years. In November 2007, Kraft agreed to sell its cereal unit to Ralcorp Holdings , a major private-label food maker, for $ 2.6 billion in a form of a spin-off merger. This would add 50% to Ralcorp's sales, to $ 3.3 billion, and will be used for Kraft's debt payment, which

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5418-575: The International Energy Agency (IEA), enabling states to coordinate policy, gather data, and monitor global oil reserves. In the 1970s, OPEC gradually nationalized the Seven Sisters. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as the only largest world oil producer, could leverage this. However, Saudi Arabia opted for the correct approach and maintained consistent oil prices throughout the 1970s. In 1979, the "second oil shock" came from

5547-511: The Netherlands has become a popular choice, as its company laws have fewer requirements for meetings, compensation, and audit committees, and Great Britain had advantages due to laws on withholding dividends and a double-taxation treaty with the United States. Corporations can legally engage in tax avoidance through their choice of jurisdiction but must be careful to avoid illegal tax evasion . Corporations that are broadly active across

5676-558: The OLI framework. The other theoretical dimension of the role of multinational corporations concerns the relationship between the globalization of economic engagement and the culture of national and local responses. This has a history of self-conscious cultural management going back at least to the 60s. For example: Ernest Dichter, architect, of Exxon's international campaign, writing in the Harvard Business Review in 1963,

5805-464: The Third World colonies. That changed dramatically after 1945 as investors turned to industrialized countries and invested in manufacturing (especially high-tech electronics, chemicals, drugs, and vehicles) as well as trade. Sweden's leading manufacturing concern was SKF , a leading maker of bearings for machinery. In order to expand its international business, it decided in 1966 it needed to use

5934-636: The U.S. applies its corporate taxation "extraterritorially", which has motivated tax inversions to change the home state. By 2019, most OECD nations, with the notable exception of the U.S., had moved to territorial tax in which only revenue inside the border was taxed; however, these nations typically scrutinize foreign income with controlled foreign corporation (CFC) rules to avoid base erosion and profit shifting . In practice, even under an extraterritorial system, taxes may be deferred until remittance, with possible repatriation tax holidays , and subject to foreign tax credits . Countries generally cannot tax

6063-456: The U.S. because of heavy product development , expansion by marketing , and opening a wholly owned cheese factory in Stockton, Illinois . In 1915, the company had invented pasteurized processed cheese that did not need refrigeration , thus giving a longer shelf life than conventional cheese. The process was patented in 1916 and about six million pounds of the product were sold to

6192-571: The UK business after the acquisition. Kraft spent a one-time $ 1.3 billion in integration costs to achieve $ 675 million in recurring annual synergy savings by the end of 2012 (estimated). Kraft was forced to increase prices to offset rising commodity costs in North America and Europe. Kraft has had to contend with the higher cost of ingredients such as corn, sugar and cocoa. Kraft chief executive Irene Rosenfeld said, "We expect it will remain weak for

6321-541: The United States sanctions against Iran ; European companies faced with the possibility of losing access to the U.S. market by trading with Iran. International investment agreements also facilitate direct investment between two countries, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and most favored nation status. Raymond Vernon reported in 1977 that of the largest multinationals focused on manufacturing, 250 were headquartered in

6450-506: The United States scrutinizes foreign investments. In addition, corporations may be prohibited from various business transactions by international sanctions or domestic laws. For example, Chinese domestic corporations or citizens have limitations on their ability to make foreign investments outside China, in part to reduce capital outflow . Countries can impose extraterritorial sanctions on foreign corporations even for doing business with other foreign corporations, which occurred in 2019 with

6579-614: The United States as the largest consumer and guarantor of the existing oil security order. Since the Iraq War, OPEC has had only a minor influence on oil prices, but it has expanded to 11 members, accounting for about 40 percent of total global oil production, although this is a decline from nearly 50 percent in 1974. Oil has practically become a common commodity, leading to much more volatile prices. Most OPEC members are wealthy, and most remain dependent on oil revenues, which has serious consequences, such as when OPEC members were pressured by

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6708-461: The United States from 2010. The USA became the leading oil producer, creating tension with OPEC. In 2014, Saudi Arabia increased production to push new American producers out of the market, leading to lower prices. OPEC then reduced production in 2016 to raise prices, further worsening relations with the United States. By 2012, only 7% of the world's known oil reserves were in countries that allowed private international companies free rein; 65% were in

6837-467: The United States were due to raw milk or cheese products. They report 148 outbreaks and 2,384 illnesses (with 284 requiring hospitalization), as well as two deaths due to raw milk or cheese products during the same time period. Medical equipment, notably respiratory and anesthesia equipment, is often disinfected using hot water, as an alternative to chemical disinfection. The temperature is raised to 70 °C (158 °F) for 30 minutes. Pasteurization

6966-629: The United States, 115 in Western Europe, 70 in Japan, and 20 in the rest of the world. The multinationals in banking numbered 20 headquartered in the United States, 13 in Europe, nine in Japan and three in Canada. Today multinationals can select from a variety of jurisdictions for various subsidiaries, but the ultimate parent company can select a single legal domicile ; The Economist suggests that

7095-766: The VOC in 1799, and during the 19th century, other governments increasingly took over private companies, most notably in British India. During the process of decolonization , the European colonial charter companies were disbanded, with the final colonial corporation, the Mozambique Company , dissolving in 1972. Mining of gold, silver, copper, and oil was a major activity early on and remains so today. International mining companies became prominent in Britain in

7224-507: The West to the post-colonial South and invest either in foreign expenditures or ostentatious economic development projects. After 1974, most of the money from OPEC members ceased as payments for goods and services or investments in Western industry. In February 1974, the first Washington Energy Conference was convened. The most significant contribution of this conference was the establishment of

7353-469: The behavior of multinational corporations, given that they are effectively "stateless" actors, is one of several urgent global socioeconomic problems that has emerged during the late twentieth century. Potentially, the best concept for analyzing society's governance limitations over modern corporations is the concept of "stateless corporations". Coined at least as early as 1991 in Business Week ,

7482-742: The collapse of the Shah's regime in Iran. Iran became a regional power due to oil money and American weapons. The Shah eventually abdicated and fled the country. This prompted a strike by thousands of Iranian oil workers, significantly reducing oil production in Iran. Saudi Arabia tried to cope with the crisis by increasing production, but oil prices still soared, leading to the "second oil shock." Saudi Arabia significantly reduced oil production, losing most of its revenues. In 1986, Riyadh changed course, and oil production in Saudi Arabia sharply increased, flooding

7611-558: The combined business. Following the Kraft-Phenix acquisition, the firm continued to be called National Dairy until 1969 when it changed its name to Kraftco. Historically, all of the firm's sales came from dairy products. Its product lines began to diversify away from dairy products to caramel candies, macaroni and cheese dinners and margarines. From the 1950s onward, the firm began to move away from low value added commodity dairy products, such as fluid milk. This trend would continue for

7740-774: The companies separated. In 2000, Philip Morris (renamed Altria in 2003) acquired Nabisco Holdings for $ 18.9 billion and merged the company with Kraft Foods the same year. In 2001, Philip Morris sold 280 million Kraft shares via the third-largest IPO of all time, retaining an 88.1% stake in the company. In March 2004, Kraft acquired juice maker Veryfine . In 2004, it sold its sugar confectionery division to Wrigley , while doing minor divestitures—including its hot cereals division ( Cream of Wheat ) to B&G Foods in 2007, its pet snacks division ( Milk-Bone ) to Del Monte Foods in 2006, juice drinks and Fruit2o to Sunny Delight Beverages in 2007, its yogurt division to CoolBrands International and some grocery brands in 2006. In 2006,

7869-654: The companies. This occurred in 1960. Prior to the 1973 oil crisis , the Seven Sisters controlled around 85 percent of the world's petroleum reserves . In the 1970s, most countries with large reserves nationalized their reserves that had been owned by major oil companies. Since then, industry dominance has shifted to the OPEC cartel and state-owned oil and gas companies, such as Saudi Aramco , Gazprom (Russia), China National Petroleum Corporation , National Iranian Oil Company , PDVSA (Venezuela), Petrobras (Brazil), and Petronas (Malaysia). A unilateral increase in oil prices

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7998-519: The company announced that its 88.1% stake would be spun off to Altria shareholders at the end of March 2007, giving each approximately 0.7 shares of Kraft for each share of Altria they owned. Kraft became an independent publicly held company. In July 2007, the company bought Groupe Danone 's biscuit (cookie) and cereal division for $ 7.2 billion, including iconic French biscuit brand Lefèvre-Utile . While two years earlier firestorms of protest had arisen over plans for American PepsiCo's hostile takeover of

8127-425: The company bought Southern European business of United Biscuits , gaining several local brands such as Galletas Fontanenda . Investor Nelson Peltz bought a three-percent stake at Kraft Foods and was talking with the executives on revitalizing the business, with options such as buying Wendy's fast-food chain or selling off Post cereals and Maxwell House coffee. On January 31, 2007, after months of speculation,

8256-458: The company sent four million pounds of cheese to Britain weekly. Product development and advertising helped the company to grow during the postwar years, launching sliced processed cheese and Cheez Whiz , a brand of process cheese sauce, in the 1950s. During these years, Thomas McInnerney, National Dairy's founder, and James L. Kraft, Kraft's founder, died, and at the end of the decade, the divisions became less autonomous and even diversified to

8385-521: The company. Later, in 1927, it established its London, United Kingdom, and Hamburg , Germany, sales offices—its first forays outside North America. Sales for 1927 were $ 60.4m. In 1928, it acquired Phenix Cheese Company, the maker of a cream cheese branded as Philadelphia cream cheese , founded by Jason F. Whitney, Sr. and the company changed its name to Kraft-Phenix Cheese Company . In 1929, The New York Times reported that Kraft Phenix, The Hershey Company and Colgate were looking at merging. In

8514-586: The complete thermal death (as best as could be measured at that time) for a range of pathogenic bacteria in milk. Complete inactivation of Coxiella burnetii (which was thought at the time to cause Q fever by oral ingestion of infected milk) as well as of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (which causes tuberculosis ) were later demonstrated. For all practical purposes, these conditions were adequate for destroying almost all yeasts , molds , and common spoilage bacteria and also for ensuring adequate destruction of common pathogenic, heat-resistant organisms. However,

8643-510: The conception was theoretically clarified in 1993: that an empirical strategy for defining a stateless corporation is with analytical tools at the intersection between demographic analysis and transportation research. This intersection is known as logistics management , and it describes the importance of rapidly increasing global mobility of resources. In a long history of analysis of multinational corporations, we are some quarter-century into an era of stateless corporations—corporations that meet

8772-643: The creation of a "world customer". The idea of a global corporate village entailed the management and reconstitution of parochial attachments to one's nation. It involved not a denial of the naturalness of national attachments, but an internationalization of the way a nation defines itself. "Multinational enterprise" (MNE) is the term used by international economist and similarly defined with the multinational corporation (MNC) as an enterprise that controls and manages production establishments, known as plants located in at least two countries. The multinational enterprise (MNE) will engage in foreign direct investment (FDI) as

8901-467: The dairy industry "lacked dignity". He persevered and convinced a consortium including Goldman Sachs and Lehman Brothers to finance a roll-up strategy. As a result of his efforts, National Dairy Products Corporation was formed in 1923 in a merger of McInnerney's Hydrox with Rieck McJunkin Dairy Co of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . The resulting firm was then listed on the New York Stock Exchange with

9030-614: The deal from shareholders. Instead, production was immediately outsourced to Poland. The Somerdale Factory was closed just days after the takeover by Kraft Foods. Former Cadbury workers demanded an apology for the abrupt selling of the plant, but Kraft's CEO Irene Rosenfeld refused to explain her actions. Kraft continues to use Cadbury brands in emerging markets to expand all of its products. In April 2011, Kraft set to invest $ 150 million in South Africa's manufacturing plants over three years. President Sanjay Khosla said, " South Africa

9159-627: The debate from a neo-liberal perspective in Storm over the Multinationals (1977). Pasteurization In food processing, pasteurization ( also pasteurisation ) is a process of food preservation in which packaged foods (e.g., milk and fruit juices ) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life . Pasteurization either destroys or deactivates microorganisms and enzymes that contribute to food spoilage or

9288-465: The disease. In 1910, Lederle, then in the role of Commissioner of Health, introduced mandatory pasteurization of milk in New York City . Developed countries adopted milk pasteurization to prevent such disease and loss of life, and as a result milk is now considered a safer food. A traditional form of pasteurization by scalding and straining of cream to increase the keeping qualities of butter

9417-572: The distance from country to city, raw milk (often days old) became recognized as a source of disease. For example, between 1912 and 1937, some 65,000 people died of tuberculosis contracted from consuming milk in England and Wales alone. Because tuberculosis has a long incubation period in humans, it was difficult to link unpasteurized milk consumption with the disease. In 1892, chemist Ernst Lederle experimentally inoculated milk from tuberculosis-diseased cows into guinea pigs, which caused them to develop

9546-501: The effect of milk heat treatment on this vitamin is a not a major public health concern. Results of meta-analyses reveal that pasteurization of milk leads to a significant decrease in vitamin C and folate , but milk is also not an important source of these vitamins. A significant decrease in vitamin B2 concentrations was found after pasteurization. Vitamin B2 is typically found in bovine milk at concentrations of 1.83 mg/liter. Because

9675-480: The end of the third year. Irene Rosenfeld saw the Kraft Cadbury merger as the "logical next step in our transformation toward a high-growth, higher-margin company". She also justified the merger in order to build a "global powerhouse in snacks, confectionery and quick meals". Following the purchase of Cadbury, Kraft commanded 14.8% of the global candy and gum market. Kraft argued that it could take advantage of

9804-431: The final quality. In honor of Pasteur, this process is known as pasteurization. Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring, and it would be many years before milk was pasteurized. In the United States in the 1870s, before milk was regulated, it was common for milk to contain substances intended to mask spoilage. Milk is an excellent medium for microbial growth, and when it

9933-485: The firm acquired Dominion Dairies of Canada, marking the first effort by the firm to expand into fluid milk and ice cream outside the United States. In the same year it also acquired The Southern Oil Company in Manchester , England. In 1969, the firm changed its name from National Dairy to Kraftco Corporation . The reason for the name change was given at the time: "Expansion and innovation have taken us far afield from

10062-481: The firm makes direct investments in host country plants for equity ownership and managerial control to avoid some transaction costs . Sanjaya Lall in 1974 proposed a spectrum of scholarly analysis of multinational corporations, from the political right to the left. He put the business school how-to-do-it writers at the extreme right, followed by the liberal laissez-faire economists, and the neoliberals (they remain right of center but do allow for occasional mistakes of

10191-468: The firm, through neglect and divestiture, until the primary remaining dairy product produced by the firm would be cheese. As a result, the modern history of the firm emphasizes the cheese history. In 1933, the company began marketing by radio sponsorship. In 1935, the Sealtest brand of ice cream was launched as a unified national brand to replace the firm's numerous regional brands. During World War II,

10320-738: The food industry. In 1926, Kraft was listed on the NYSE. The firm then began to consolidate the United States dairy industry through acquisition, in competition with National and Borden. Firms acquired included: in May 1926 the Kraft Walker Cheese Co. was registered in Australia. It was a separate company from Fred Walker & Co. but managed by the same staff. Fred Walker was chairman by 1930, and after his death in July 1935, Kraft acquired

10449-419: The foreseeable future." Taking into account integration costs, the acquisition knocked about 33% off Kraft's earnings per share immediately after the purchase of Cadbury. In March 2011, Kraft caused national outrage when they sold the site of a historic Cadbury factory it vowed not to close for £50 million after initially publicly promising the continuity of production within the UK in order to win over support for

10578-549: The glass-packaging business with the acquisition of Metro Glass in 1956. In 1947, the company tested the marketing power of the emerging medium of television by producing an hour-long drama/anthology series, Kraft Television Theatre . The product advertised on the program, MacLaren's Imperial Cheese, was selected because "... [it had] not only had no advertising appropriation whatsoever, but had not even been distributed for several years." As described by internal documents of J. Walter Thompson —the advertising firm which conceived of

10707-416: The hands of state-owned companies that operated in one country and sold oil to multinationals such as BP, Shell, ExxonMobil and Chevron. Down through the 1930s, about 80% of the international investments by multinational corporations were concentrated in the primary sector, especially mining (especially oil) and agriculture (rubber, tobacco, sugar, palm oil , coffee, cocoa, and tropical fruits). Most went to

10836-412: The harmful bacteria Salmonella , Listeria , Yersinia , Campylobacter , Staphylococcus aureus , and Escherichia coli O157:H7 , among others. Prior to industrialization, dairy cows were kept in urban areas to limit the time between milk production and consumption, hence the risk of disease transmission via raw milk was reduced. As urban densities increased and supply chains lengthened to

10965-571: The heat treatments are designed to inactivate enzymes (pectin methylesterase and polygalacturonase in fruit juices) and destroy spoilage microbes (yeast and lactobacillus ). Due to the low pH of acidic foods, pathogens are unable to grow. The shelf-life is thereby extended several weeks. In less acidic foods (with pH greater than 4.6), such as milk and liquid eggs, the heat treatments are designed to destroy pathogens and spoilage organisms (yeast and molds). Not all spoilage organisms are destroyed under pasteurization parameters, so subsequent refrigeration

11094-440: The heating/cooling medium is circulated through the outer tube. Scraped-surface heat exchangers are a type of shell and tube which contain an inner rotating shaft having spring-loaded blades that serve to scrape away any highly viscous material that accumulates on the wall of the tube. The benefits of using a heat exchanger to pasteurize foods before packaging, versus pasteurizing foods in containers are: After being heated in

11223-414: The holding company's 2010 annual report . On September 22, 2008, the company replaced the troubled insurance company American International Group in the Dow Jones Industrial Average . On September 7, 2009, Kraft made a £10.2 billion takeover offer for the long-established British confectionery group Cadbury, makers of Dairy Milk and Bournville chocolate. On November 9, 2009, Kraft's £9.8bn takeover bid

11352-576: The international oil market. Iran was unable to sell any of its oil. In August 1953, the then-prime minister was overthrown by a pro-American dictatorship led by the Shah, and in October 1954, the Iranian industry was denationalized. Worldwide oil consumption increased rapidly between 1949 and 1970, a period known as the 'golden age of oil'. This increase in consumption was caused not only by the growth of production by multinational oil companies but also by

11481-415: The internationalization of production. For the first time in history, production, marketing, and investment are being organized on a global scale rather than in terms of isolated national economies. International business is also a specialist field of academic research. Economic theories of the multinational corporation include internalization theory and the eclectic paradigm . The latter is also known as

11610-460: The largest recipients. However, 70% of foreign direct investment went into developed countries in the form of stocks and cash flows. The rise in the number of multinational companies could be due to a stable political environment that encourages cooperation, advances in technology that enable management of faraway regions, and favorable organizational development that encourages business expansion into other countries. A multinational corporation (MNC)

11739-474: The laws and regulations of both their domicile and the additional jurisdictions where they are engaged in business. In some cases, the jurisdiction can help to avoid burdensome laws, but regulatory statutes often target the "enterprise" with statutory language around "control". As of 1992 , the United States and most OECD countries have the donot legal authority to tax a domiciled parent corporation on its worldwide revenue, including subsidiaries. As of 2019 ,

11868-528: The major milk-borne pathogens during a 15-second treatment are: (A log 10 reduction between 6 and 7 means that 1 bacterium out of 1 million (10 ) to 10 million (10 ) bacteria survive the treatment.) The Codex Alimentarius Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk notes that milk pasteurization is designed to achieve at least a 5 log 10 reduction of Coxiella burnetii . The Code also notes that: "The minimum pasteurization conditions are those having bactericidal effects equivalent to heating every particle of

11997-494: The market with cheap oil. This caused a worldwide drop in oil prices, hence the "third oil shock" or "counter-shock." However, this shock represented something much bigger—the end of OPEC's dominance and its control over oil prices. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein decided to attack Kuwait. The invasion sparked a crisis in the Middle East, prompting Saudi Arabia to request assistance from the United States. The United States sent

12126-440: The marketing test—the result was "although there was no other advertising support for it whatsoever, still grocery stores could not keep up with the demand." In the 1960s, product development became intense, launching fruit jellies , fruit preserves , marshmallows , barbecue sauces and Kraft Singles, a brand of individually-wrapped cheese slices. During this decade, the company also expanded in many markets worldwide. In 1961,

12255-543: The marketplace such as externalities). Moving to the left side of the line are nationalists, who prioritize national interests over corporate profits, then the "dependencia" school in Latin America that focuses on the evils of imperialism, and on the far left the Marxists. The range is so broad that scholarly consensus is hard to discern. Anti-corporate advocates criticize multinational corporations for being without

12384-479: The microbiological techniques used until the 1960s did not allow for the actual reduction of bacteria to be enumerated. Demonstration of the extent of inactivation of pathogenic bacteria by milk pasteurization came from a study of surviving bacteria in milk that was heat-treated after being deliberately spiked with high levels of the most heat-resistant strains of the most significant milk-borne pathogens. The mean log 10 reductions and temperatures of inactivation of

12513-658: The milk to 72 °C (162 °F) for 15 seconds (continuous flow pasteurization) or 63 °C (145 °F) for 30 minutes (batch pasteurization)” and that "To ensure that each particle is sufficiently heated, the milk flow in heat exchangers should be turbulent, i.e . the Reynolds number should be sufficiently high". The point about turbulent flow is important because simplistic laboratory studies of heat inactivation that use test tubes, without flow, will have less bacterial inactivation than larger-scale experiments that seek to replicate conditions of commercial pasteurization. As

12642-555: The offer of 125,000 shares having been oversubscribed. The firm grew quickly through a large number of acquisitions. As is typical in a roll-up strategy, acquisitions were primarily for stock in National rather than cash. National Dairy Products Corporation acquired more than 55 firms between 1923 and 1931, with a few notable entities among those: Born in Stevensville , Ontario , Canada, in 1874, James L. Kraft immigrated to

12771-428: The packaging, extends shelf life to three months under refrigeration. Food can be pasteurized either before or after being packaged into containers. Pasteurization of food in containers generally uses either steam or hot water. When food is packaged in glass, hot water is used to avoid cracking the glass from thermal shock . When plastic or metal packaging is used, the risk of thermal shock is low, so steam or hot water

12900-608: The pasteurization of milk while at the United States Marine Hospital Service, notably in his publication of The Milk Question (1912). States in the U.S. soon began enacting mandatory dairy pasteurization laws, with the first in 1947, and in 1973 the U.S. federal government required pasteurization of milk used in any interstate commerce. The shelf life of refrigerated pasteurized milk is greater than that of raw milk . For example, high-temperature, short-time ( HTST ) pasteurized milk typically has

13029-442: The pasteurization process does not have much effect on pigments such as chlorophylls , anthocyanins, and carotenoids in plants and animal tissues. In fruit juices, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is the main enzyme responsible for causing browning and color changes. However, this enzyme is deactivated in the deaeration step prior to pasteurization with the removal of oxygen. In milk, the color difference between pasteurized and raw milk

13158-550: The present name, Kraft Foods. The same year, it sold its bakery division (except Lender's Bagels, which was sold in 1996 to Kellogg Company ), its caramel & marshmallow divisions and its tablespreads division. Log Cabin syrup was sold in 1997. On August 2, 1996, Kraft announced a deal with PepsiCo to market the Taco Bell brand of grocery products. By 2007, Philip Morris (now Altria Inc.) sold its stake in Kraft foods and

13287-560: The price collapse in 1998–1999. The United States still maintains close relations with Saudi Arabia. In 2003, U.S. forces invaded Iraq with the aim of removing the dictatorship and gaining access to Iraqi oil reserves, giving the United States greater strategic importance from 2000 to 2008. During this period, there was a constant shortage of oil, but its consumption continued to rise, maintaining high prices and leading to concerns about "peak oil". From 2005 to 2012, there were advances in oil and gas extraction, leading to increased production in

13416-611: The realities of the needs of source materials on a worldwide basis and to produce and customize products for individual countries. One of the first multinational business organizations, the East India Company , was established in 1601. After the East India Company came the Dutch East India Company , founded on March 20, 1603, which would become the largest company in the world for nearly 200 years. The main characteristics of multinational companies are: When

13545-484: The recommended daily intake for adults is 1.1 mg/day, milk consumption greatly contributes to the recommended daily intake of this vitamin. With the exception of B2, pasteurization does not appear to be a concern in diminishing the nutritive value of milk because milk is often not a primary source of these studied vitamins in the North American diet. Pasteurization also has a small but measurable effect on

13674-402: The regional milk and ice cream business we started with in 1923. Dollar sales of these original products have remained relatively static over the past ten years and, in 1969 accounted for approximately 25% of our sales." At the same time, the firm transferred to Glenview , Illinois, in 1972. In 1976, its name changed to Kraft, Inc. to emphasize the trademark the company had been known for and as

13803-438: The review, there was only limited research regarding how much pasteurization affects A, B12, and E levels. Milk is not considered an important source of vitamins B12 or E in the North American diet, so the effects of pasteurization on the adult daily intake of these vitamins is negligible. However, milk is considered an important source of vitamin A, and because pasteurization appears to increase vitamin A concentrations in milk,

13932-399: The risk of disease, including vegetative bacteria , but most bacterial spores survive the process. Pasteurization is named after the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur , whose research in the 1860s demonstrated that thermal processing would deactivate unwanted microorganisms in wine . Spoilage enzymes are also inactivated during pasteurization. Today, pasteurization is used widely in

14061-522: The role of chairman. It was assumed that the purchase of Cadbury would help Kraft products develop in new markets such as Brazil and India because of Cadbury's current strong presence in those markets. India is one of its most resilient markets with sales growth of 20% and profits growing at 30% in a competitive market. Kraft believed the Cadbury purchase was also necessary because of the likelihood of Nestlé and Hershey joining together. Kraft also believed it could squeeze savings of at least $ 675m annually by

14190-466: The same year, it was reported that National, Borden and Standard Brands (a firm that is now part of Kraft Foods) were all looking at acquiring the firm. By 1930, it had captured forty percent of the cheese market in the U.S. and was the third largest dairy company in the United States after National Dairy and Borden. At the time of the acquisition in 1930, National Dairy had sales of $ 315m compared with $ 85m for Kraft Phenix. National Dairy management ran

14319-529: The sensory attributes of the foods that are processed. In fruit juices, pasteurization may result in loss of volatile aroma compounds. Fruit juice products undergo a deaeration process prior to pasteurization that may be responsible for this loss. Deaeration also minimizes the loss of nutrients like vitamin C and carotene . To prevent the decrease in quality resulting from the loss in volatile compounds, volatile recovery, though costly, can be utilized to produce higher-quality juice products. In regard to color,

14448-501: The strong influence of the United States on the global oil market. In 1959, companies lowered the price of oil due to a surplus in the market. This reduction dealt a significant blow to the finances of producers. Saudi oil minister Abdullah Tariki and Venezuela’s Juan Perez Alfonso entered into a secret agreement (the Mahdi Pact), promising that if the price of oil was lowered a second time, they would take collective action against

14577-432: The takeover by Kraft by saying, "We believe the offer represents good value for Cadbury shareholders and are pleased with the commitment that Kraft Foods has made to our heritage, values and people throughout the world." Cadbury sales were flat after Kraft's acquisition. Despite the Cadbury takeover helping boost sales by 30%, Kraft's net profit for the fourth quarter fell 24% to $ 540m due to costs associated with integrating

14706-411: The town of Massy , near Paris, became the first food-bottling factory in the world, preserving a variety of foods in sealed bottles. Appert's filled thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and fowl to eggs, milk and prepared dishes. He left air space at the top of the bottle, and the cork would then be sealed firmly in the jar by using a vise . The bottle

14835-496: The world market, jobs for locals, and business and profits for companies. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) was one of the few businessmen in the era who became Prime Minister (of South Africa 1890–1896). His mining enterprises included the British South Africa Company and De Beers . The latter company practically controlled the global diamond market from its base in southern Africa. In 1945, the United States

14964-573: The world without a concentration in one area have been called stateless or "transnational" (although "transnational corporation" is also used synonymously with "multinational corporation" ), but as of 1992, a corporation must be legally domiciled in a particular country and engage in other countries through foreign direct investment and the creation of foreign subsidiaries. Geographic diversification can be measured across various domains, including ownership and control, workforce, sales, and regulation and taxation. Multinational corporations may be subject to

15093-503: The worldwide revenue of a foreign subsidiary, and taxation is complicated by transfer pricing arrangements with parent corporations. For small corporations, registering a foreign subsidiary can be expensive and complex, involving fees, signatures, and forms; a professional employer organization (PEO) is sometimes advertised as a cheaper and simpler alternative, but not all jurisdictions have laws accepting these types of arrangements. Disputes between corporations in different nations

15222-418: Was at $ 13.4 billion, in danger of a downgrade by Standard and Poor's. In February 2008, Berkshire Hathaway ,run by billionaire investor Warren E. Buffett , announced that it had acquired an 8% stake in Kraft then worth over $ 4 billion. Buffett's business partner Charles Munger had also invested over $ 300 million in Kraft. Berkshire Hathaway owned 5.6% of the outstanding stock of Kraft Foods, as reported in

15351-457: Was documented in Japan in the diary Tamonin-nikki written by a series of monks between 1478 and 1618. In 1768, research performed by the Italian priest and scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani proved that a product could be made "sterile" after thermal processing. Spallanzani boiled meat broth for one hour, sealed the container immediately after boiling, and noticed that the broth did not spoil and

15480-438: Was enabled by multinational corporations known as the 'Seven Sisters'. The "Seven Sisters" was a common term for the seven multinational companies that dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s. The nationalization of the Iranian oil industry in 1951 by Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh and the subsequent boycott of Iranian oil by all companies had dramatic consequences for Iran and

15609-426: Was free from microorganisms. In 1795, a Parisian chef and confectioner named Nicolas Appert began experimenting with ways to preserve foodstuffs, succeeding with soups, vegetables, juices, dairy products, jellies, jams, and syrups. He placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax and placed them in boiling water. In that same year, the French military offered a cash prize of 12,000 francs for

15738-448: Was fully aware that the means to overcoming cultural resistance depended on an "understanding" of the countries in which a corporation operated. He observed that companies with "foresight to capitalize on international opportunities" must recognize that " cultural anthropology will be an important tool for competitive marketing". However, the projected outcome of this was not the assimilation of international firms into national cultures, but

15867-546: Was labeled as "the largest nonviolent transfer of wealth in human history." The OPEC sought immediate discussions regarding participation in national oil industries. Companies were not inclined to object as the price hike benefited both them and OPEC members. In 1980, the Seven Sisters were entirely displaced and replaced by national oil companies (NOCs). The rise in oil prices burdened developing countries with balance of payments deficits, leading to an energy crisis. OPEC members had to abandon their plan of redistributing wealth from

15996-559: Was practiced in Great Britain in the 18th century and was introduced to Boston in the British Colonies by 1773, although it was not widely practiced in the United States for the next 20 years. Pasteurization of milk was suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. In the early 20th century, Milton Joseph Rosenau established the standards – i.e. low-temperature, slow heating at 60 °C (140 °F) for 20 minutes – for

16125-492: Was rejected by Cadbury. Cadbury stated that the takeover bid was a "derisory" offer. Kraft renewed the offer under the same terms on December 4, 2009. The offer generated significant political and public opposition in the United Kingdom and abroad, even leading to calls for the government to implement a policy of economic protectionism in cases of takeovers of large companies. On January 19, 2010, Cadbury finally approved

16254-744: Was reversed after the merger, as it became slow in addressing issues on its product lines due to its size, and also company politics. In 1990, the company acquired Jacobs Suchard (a European coffee and confectionery giant) and Freia Marabou (a Scandinavian confectionery maker) to expand overseas as its business was heavily dependent on the U.S. In 1993, it acquired RJR Nabisco 's cold cereal business (mainly Shredded Wheat and Shreddies cereals), Terry's of York from United Biscuits , while selling its Breyers ice-cream division to Unilever and its Birds Eye unit to Dean Foods . In 1994, it sold its frozen dinners unit to H.J. Heinz and in 1995, it sold its foodservice unit. In 1995, it changed its name to

16383-513: Was the world's largest oil producer. However, their reserves were declining due to high demand. Therefore, the United States turned to foreign oil sources, which had a significant impact on the recovery of the West after World War II. Most of the world's oil was found in Latin America and the Middle East, particularly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. This increase in non-American production

16512-458: Was then wrapped in canvas to protect it while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called appertisation in his honor. Appert's method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, the British inventor and merchant Peter Durand , also of French origin, patented his own method, but this time in

16641-412: Was valued at $ 113 billion. The purchase of Cadbury was considered strange because they did not have a strong foothold on the confectionery market, but at the time Kraft noted their production of confectionery foods like Toblerone and candy foods like Oreo. Cadbury also owned popular gum brands such as Stride , Trident , Dentyne , and Chiclets . Roger Carr , chairman of Cadbury, discussed his approval of

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