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111-728: In 1948, the National Heart Act established the National Heart Institute and the National Advisory Heart Council. The intramural research program was established a year later in 1949. In 1969, the National Heart Institute was renamed the National Heart and Lung Institute, and the scope of the institute was expanded. In 1976, it was given its current name, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. It had been designated as

222-410: A research question is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis . The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what

333-592: A significant finding), which leads to a problematic bias in the published literature. This can propagate further as literature reviews of claims about support for a hypothesis will themselves be biased if the original literature is contaminated by publication bias. Studies with significant results often do not appear to be superior to studies with a null result with respect to quality of design . However, statistically significant results have been shown to be three times more likely to be published compared to papers with null results. Driving while black refers to

444-569: A "public domain", that of "humanity". This idea gained prevalence as a result of Western colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships. There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital right management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms

555-449: A case. The word is often used to refer to preconceived, usually unfavorable, judgments toward people or a person because of gender , political opinion, social class , age , disability , religion , sexuality , race / ethnicity , language , nationality , or other personal characteristics. Prejudice can also refer to unfounded beliefs and may include "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence". Ageism

666-418: A feature of the mass media since its birth with the invention of the printing press . The expense of early printing equipment restricted media production to a limited number of people. Historians have found that publishers often served the interests of powerful social groups. Agenda setting describes the capacity of the media to focus on particular stories, if a news item is covered frequently and prominently,

777-457: A group, or a belief. In science and engineering, a bias is a systematic error . Statistical bias results from an unfair sampling of a population, or from an estimation process that does not give accurate results on average. The word appears to derive from Old Provençal into Old French biais , "sideways, askance, against the grain". Whence comes French biais , "a slant, a slope, an oblique". It seems to have entered English via

888-542: A hazard that choices made may be unduly affected by auxiliary interests. Bribery is giving of money, goods or other forms of recompense to in order to influence the recipient's behavior. Bribes can include money (including tips ), goods , rights in action , property , privilege , emolument , gifts , perks , skimming , return favors , discounts , sweetheart deals , kickbacks , funding , donations , campaign contributions , sponsorships , stock options , secret commissions , or promotions . Expectations of when

999-428: A high-stakes interest in the outcome of policy or regulatory decisions can be expected to focus their resources and energies in attempting to gain the policy outcomes they prefer, while members of the public, each with only a tiny individual stake in the outcome, will ignore it altogether. Regulatory capture is a risk to which a regulatory agency is exposed by its very nature. Shilling is deliberately giving spectators

1110-502: A history." Self-serving bias is the tendency for cognitive or perceptual processes to be distorted by the individual's need to maintain and enhance self-esteem . It is the propensity to credit accomplishment to our own capacities and endeavors, yet attribute failure to outside factors, to dismiss the legitimacy of negative criticism, concentrate on positive qualities and accomplishments yet disregard flaws and failures. Studies have demonstrated that this bias can affect behavior in

1221-475: A monetary transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Political campaign contributions in the form of cash are considered criminal acts of bribery in some countries, while in the United States they are legal provided they adhere to election law. Tipping is considered bribery in some societies, but not others. Favoritism, sometimes known as in-group favoritism, or in-group bias, refers to

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1332-467: A non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of cosmological research is theoretical in nature. Mathematics research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to prove theorems about mathematical objects . Research ethics

1443-408: A novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically some new (for example) mathematical results produced or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of

1554-487: A pattern of deviation from standards in judgment, whereby inferences may be created unreasonably. People create their own "subjective social reality " from their own perceptions, their view of the world may dictate their behaviour. Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality . However some cognitive biases are taken to be adaptive , and thus may lead to success in

1665-457: A pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources, and in many other ways. This has been researched by psychologists , especially social psychologists , and linked to group conflict and prejudice . Cronyism is favoritism of long-standing friends, especially by appointing them to positions of authority, regardless of their qualifications. Nepotism

1776-460: A problem that is in need of a solution. Members of political parties attempt to frame issues in a way that makes a solution favoring their own political leaning appear as the most appropriate course of action for the situation at hand. As understood in social theory , framing is a schema of interpretation , a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes , that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events. People use filters to make sense of

1887-468: A research approach. Neither one is less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. Typically empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. See Scientific method . A simple example of

1998-493: A single, all-encompassing definition that is embraced by all who engage in it. Research, in its simplest terms, is searching for knowledge and searching for truth. In a formal sense, it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a deliberately chosen strategy, which starts with choosing an approach to preparing a blueprint (design) and acting upon it in terms of designing research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or developing data collection tools, processing

2109-455: A variety of approaches, such as queer theory or feminist theory. Artistic research , also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth. The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented

2220-413: A way means that true randomization is not achieved, thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed. This results in a sample that may be significantly different from the overall population. Bias and prejudice are usually considered to be closely related. Prejudice is prejudgment, or forming an opinion before becoming aware of the relevant facts of

2331-422: A wide variety of areas broadly related to the mission of the institute, both clinical research and basic science research. There are 60 investigators, each of whom runs their own research program. They are supported by a group of core services that implement state-of-the-art techniques available to all NHLBI investigators. Marshall Nirenberg , Nobel laureate for his part in the discovery of the genetic code , became

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2442-418: Is " creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge ". It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error . These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in

2553-444: Is a psychological heuristic that describes the propensity to rely on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions . According to this heuristic , individuals begin with an implicitly suggested reference point (the "anchor") and make adjustments to it to reach their estimate. For example, the initial price offered for a used car sets the standard for the rest of the negotiations , so that prices lower than

2664-521: Is a discipline within the study of applied ethics . Its scope ranges from general scientific integrity and misconduct to the treatment of human and animal subjects. The social responsibilities of scientists and researchers are not traditionally included and are less well defined. The discipline is most developed in medical research . Beyond the issues of falsification, fabrication, and plagiarism that arise in every scientific field, research design in human subject research and animal testing are

2775-510: Is a specific type of confirmation bias , wherein positive sentiments in one area cause questionable or unknown characteristics to be seen positively. If the observer likes one aspect of something, they will have a positive predisposition toward everything about it. A person's appearance has been found to produce a halo effect. The halo effect is also present in the field of brand marketing , affecting perception of companies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The opposite of

2886-422: Is a systematic tendency in the process of data collection, which results in lopsided, misleading results. This can occur in any of a number of ways, in the way the sample is selected, or in the way data are collected. It is a property of a statistical technique or of its results whereby the expected value of the results differs from the true underlying quantitative parameter being estimated . A forecast bias

2997-426: Is a tendency of scholars to cite academic journals with open access —that is, journals that make their full text available on the internet without charge—in their own writing as compared with toll access publications . Scholars can more easily discover and access articles that have their full text on the internet, which increases authors' likelihood of reading, quoting, and citing these articles, this may increase

3108-462: Is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen

3219-403: Is autonomous of actual improper actions , it can be found and intentionally defused before corruption , or the appearance of corruption, happens. "A conflict of interest is a set of circumstances that creates a risk that professional judgement or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary interest." It exists if the circumstances are sensibly accepted to present

3330-590: Is becoming more common. This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and follow it up with a quantitative study to gain additional insights. Big data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been developed. Types of Research Method 1. Observatory Research Method 2. Correlation Research Method Non-empirical ( theoretical ) research

3441-479: Is celebrated as a protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are used by cultural groups (i.e. indigenous communities) this is denounced as "access control" and reprehended as censorship. Bias Bias is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is inaccurate, closed-minded , prejudicial , or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual,

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3552-403: Is commonly referred to regarding its use by law enforcement , and its leading to discrimination against minorities . Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a wrongful act is held at fault for the harm that befell them. The study of victimology seeks to mitigate the perception of victims as responsible. Media bias is the bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within

3663-408: Is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible. Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data,

3774-696: Is due to self-selection of conservatives choosing not to pursue academic careers. There is some evidence that perception of classroom bias may be rooted in issues of sexuality , race , class and sex as much or more than in religion . In science research , experimenter bias occurs when experimenter expectancies regarding study results bias the research outcome. Examples of experimenter bias include conscious or unconscious influences on subject behavior including creation of demand characteristics that influence subjects, and altered or selective recording of experimental results themselves . It can also involve asking leading probes and not neutrally redirecting

3885-434: Is favoritism granted to relatives . Lobbying is the attempt to influence choices made by administrators , frequently lawmakers or individuals from administrative agencies . Lobbyists may be among a legislator's constituencies , or not; they may engage in lobbying as a business , or not. Lobbying is often spoken of with contempt , the implication is that people with inordinate socioeconomic power are corrupting

3996-415: Is known as empirical research . The results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research . However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in

4107-583: Is known as meta-research . A researcher is a person who conducts research, especially in order to discover new information or to reach a new understanding. In order to be a social researcher or a social scientist , one should have enormous knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science ( physics , chemistry , biology , astronomy , zoology and so on). Professional associations provide one pathway to mature in

4218-414: Is known as the " gambler's fallacy ". Pareidolia is the visual or auditory form of apophenia. It has been suggested that pareidolia combined with hierophany may have helped ancient societies organize chaos and make the world intelligible. An attribution bias can happen when individuals assess or attempt to discover explanations behind their own and others' behaviors. People make attributions about

4329-454: Is leading to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines. One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis. Artistic research has been defined by

4440-460: Is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data. Primary data

4551-1012: Is often biased in the languages that are preferred ( linguicism ) and the geographic locations where research occurs. Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication. As the great majority of mainstream academic journals are written in English, multilingual periphery scholars often must translate their work to be accepted to elite Western-dominated journals. Multilingual scholars' influences from their native communicative styles can be assumed to be incompetence instead of difference. For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Since 2000, Latin American countries have become more popular in single-country studies. In contrast, countries in Oceania and

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4662-515: Is only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in the results." Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!" The goal of

4773-400: Is related to the causes, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of heart, blood vessel, lung, and blood diseases, and sleep disorders. The NHLBI plans and directs research in development and evaluation of interventions and devices related to prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of patients with such diseases and disorders. It also supports research on clinical use of blood and all aspects of

4884-422: Is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs. People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position. Biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization (when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence), belief perseverance (when beliefs persist after

4995-423: Is the bias or perceived bias of scholars allowing their beliefs to shape their research and the scientific community . Claims of bias are often linked to claims by conservatives of pervasive bias against political conservatives and religious Christians. Some have argued that these claims are based upon anecdotal evidence which would not reliably indicate systematic bias, and have suggested that this divide

5106-450: Is the process whereby an organization monitors its own adherence to legal, ethical, or safety standards, rather than have an outside, independent agency such as a third party entity monitor and enforce those standards. Self-regulation of any group can create a conflict of interest. If any organization, such as a corporation or government bureaucracy, is asked to eliminate unethical behavior within their own group, it may be in their interest in

5217-434: Is the stereotyping and/or discrimination against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. It can be used in reference to prejudicial attitudes towards older people, or towards younger people. Classism is discrimination on the basis of social class . It includes attitudes that benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class , or vice versa. Lookism is stereotypes , prejudice , and discrimination on

5328-736: Is very powerful strategy for demonstrating methodology to health professions education as well as best suited for exploring challenging problems in health professions educations. In addition, PMP researcher Mandy Sha argued that a project management approach is necessary to control the scope, schedule, and cost related to qualitative research design, participant recruitment, data collection, reporting, as well as stakeholder engagement . The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if

5439-413: Is when there are consistent differences between results and the forecasts of those quantities; that is: forecasts may have an overall tendency to be too high or too low. The observer-expectancy effect is when a researcher's expectations cause them to subconsciously influence the people participating in an experiment. It is usually controlled using a double-blind system , and was an important reason for

5550-540: The Caribbean are the focus of very few studies. Patterns of geographic bias also show a relationship with linguicism: countries whose official languages are French or Arabic are far less likely to be the focus of single-country studies than countries with different official languages. Within Africa, English-speaking countries are more represented than other countries. Generalization is the process of more broadly applying

5661-911: The European League of Institutes of the Arts launched The Florence Principles' on the Doctorate in the Arts . The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg Recommendations of the European University Association name seven points of attention to specify the Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD. The Florence Principles have been endorsed and are supported also by AEC , CILECT , CUMULUS and SAR . The historical method comprises

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5772-510: The School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context." Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of

5883-508: The impact factor of open access journals relative to journals without open access. The related bias, no abstract available bias (NAA bias) is scholars' tendency to cite journal articles that have an abstract available online more readily than articles that do not. Publication bias is a type of bias with regard to what academic research is likely to be published because of a tendency among researchers and journal editors to prefer some outcomes rather than others (e.g., results showing

5994-441: The law in order to serve their own interests. When people who have a duty to act on behalf of others, such as elected officials with a duty to serve their constituents' interests or more broadly the common good , stand to benefit by shaping the law to serve the interests of some private parties, there is a conflict of interest. This can lead to all sides in a debate looking to sway the issue by means of lobbyists. Self-regulation

6105-438: The mass media in the selection of events, the stories that are reported, and how they are covered. The term generally implies a pervasive or widespread bias violating the standards of journalism , rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. The level of media bias in different nations is debated. There are also watchdog groups that report on media bias. Practical limitations to media neutrality include

6216-415: The racial profiling of African American drivers. The phrase implies that a motorist might be pulled over by a police officer, questioned, and searched, because of a racial bias . Racial profiling, or ethnic profiling, is the act of suspecting or targeting a person of a certain race on the basis of racially observed characteristics or behavior, rather than on individual suspicion. Racial profiling

6327-451: The researcher . The degree of originality of the research is among the major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review . Graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation . Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity . This research provides scientific information and theories for

6438-642: The scientific lacuna in culturally sensitive methods of data collection. Western methods of data collection may not be the most accurate or relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, " Hua Oranga " was created as a criterion for psychological evaluation in Māori populations, and is based on dimensions of mental health important to the Māori people – "taha wairua (the spiritual dimension), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana (the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family dimension)". Research

6549-416: The social construction of social phenomena by mass media sources, political or social movements , political leaders , and so on. It is an influence over how people organize, perceive, and communicate about reality . It can be positive or negative, depending on the audience and what kind of information is being presented. For political purposes, framing often presents facts in such a way that implicates

6660-418: The workplace , in interpersonal relationships , playing sports , and in consumer decisions . Status quo bias is an emotional bias ; a preference for the current state of affairs. The current baseline (or status quo) is taken as a reference point, and any change from that baseline is perceived as a loss. Status quo bias should be distinguished from a rational preference for the status quo ante, as when

6771-528: The 1978 Belmont Report . Today, research ethics committees , such as those of the US , UK , and EU , govern and oversee the responsible conduct of research. Meta-research is the study of research through the use of research methods. Also known as "research on research", it aims to reduce waste and increase the quality of research in all fields. Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies. Among

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6882-486: The above areas, including the related causes of stroke , with other research institutes and federal health programs. Relationships are maintained with institutions and professional associations, and with international, national, state, and local officials as well as voluntary agencies and organizations working in the above areas. The NHLBI Division of Intramural Research (DIR) in Bethesda conducts research and training in

6993-528: The above areas, with an emphasis on prevention. The NHLBI supports research training and career development of new and established researchers in fundamental sciences and clinical disciplines to enable them to conduct basic and clinical research related to heart, blood vessel, lung, and blood diseases, sleep disorders , and blood resources through individual and institutional research training awards (T90/R90), career development awards (K), and fellowships (i.e. T32/F32). The NHLBI coordinates relevant activities in

7104-458: The accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between

7215-421: The agency responsible for blood research by the National Heart, Blood Vessel, Lung, and Blood Act of 1972, after the newly created National Sickle Cell Disease Program was put under its aegis. The Institute plans, conducts, fosters, and supports an integrated and coordinated program of basic research , clinical investigations and trials , observational studies , and demonstration and education projects. Research

7326-412: The appropriate situation. Furthermore, cognitive biases as an example through education may allow faster choice selection when speedier outcomes for a task are more valuable than precision. Other cognitive biases are a "by-product" of human processing limitations, coming about because of an absence of appropriate mental mechanisms , or just from human limitations in information processing . Anchoring

7437-470: The areas that raise ethical questions most often. The list of historic cases includes many large-scale violations and crimes against humanity such as Nazi human experimentation and the Tuskegee syphilis experiment which led to international codes of research ethics. No approach has been universally accepted, but typically-cited codes are the 1947 Nuremberg Code , the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki , and

7548-756: The arts. A simpler understanding by Julian Klein defines artistic research as any kind of research employing the artistic mode of perception. For a survey of the central problematics of today's artistic research, see Giaco Schiesser . According to artist Hakan Topal , in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities". Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research. The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes

7659-461: The basis of physical attractiveness , or more generally to people whose appearance matches cultural preferences. Many people make automatic judgments of others based on their physical appearance that influence how they respond to those people. Racism consists of ideologies based on a desire to dominate or a belief in the inferiority of another race. It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently. Academic bias

7770-435: The causes of their own and others' behaviors; but these attributions do not necessarily precisely reflect reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, individuals are inclined to perceptual slips that prompt biased understandings of their social world. When judging others we tend to assume their actions are the result of internal factors such as personality , whereas we tend to assume our own actions arise because of

7881-420: The current state of affairs is objectively superior to the available alternatives, or when imperfect information is a significant problem. A large body of evidence, however, shows that status quo bias frequently affects human decision-making. A conflict of interest is when a person or association has intersecting interests ( financial , personal , etc.) which could potentially corrupt. The potential conflict

7992-422: The data are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment). If this

8103-623: The data, interpretation, and ending with presenting solution(s) of the problem. Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell , who states that "research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research more generally to also include studying already existing knowledge: "studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at

8214-422: The development of double-blind experiments. In epidemiology and empirical research , reporting bias is defined as "selective revealing or suppression of information" of undesirable behavior by subjects or researchers. It refers to a tendency to under-report unexpected or undesirable experimental results, while being more trusting of expected or desirable results. This can propagate, as each instance reinforces

8325-424: The discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws". Original research , also called primary research , is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review, or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary-source character. The purpose of

8436-512: The evidence for them is shown to be false), the irrational primacy effect (a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series) and illusory correlation (when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations). Confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts. Framing involves

8547-425: The explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research may be funded by public authorities, charitable organizations, and private organizations. Scientific research can be subdivided by discipline . Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process . Though the order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher,

8658-448: The feeling that one is an energetic autonomous client of a vendor for whom one is working. The effectiveness of shilling relies on crowd psychology to encourage other onlookers or audience members to purchase the goods or services (or accept the ideas being marketed). Shilling is illegal in some places, but legal in others. An example of shilling is paid reviews that give the impression of being autonomous opinions. Statistical bias

8769-730: The field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research ) are documentation , discovery , interpretation , and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies , which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific , humanities , artistic , economic, social , business, marketing , practitioner research , life, technological , etc. The scientific study of research practices

8880-460: The finding of meta-research is a low rates of reproducibility across a large number of fields. This widespread difficulty in reproducing research has been termed the " replication crisis ." In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant. Researchers are overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation of indigenous peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to

8991-400: The findings and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted. Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It

9102-461: The following concepts are part of most formal historical research: Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are: The steps generally represent

9213-414: The following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied: A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, null hypothesis ). Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability ). However, if

9324-499: The game of bowls , where it referred to balls made with a greater weight on one side. Which expanded to the figurative use, "a one-sided tendency of the mind", and, at first especially in law, "undue propensity or prejudice". or ballast , used to lower the centre of gravity of a ship to increase stability and to keep the ship from tipping from Port or Starboard. A cognitive bias is a repeating or basic misstep in thinking, assessing, recollecting, or other cognitive processes. That is,

9435-406: The halo is the horn effect, when "individuals believe (that negative) traits are inter-connected." The term horn effect refers to Devil's horns . It works in a negative direction: if the observer dislikes one aspect of something, they will have a negative predisposition towards other aspects. Both of these bias effects often clash with phrases such as "words mean something" and "Your words have

9546-730: The head of the Section of Biochemical Genetics in 1962. The DIR also has a large training component, with opportunities for undergraduate, graduate, and medical students as well as post-doctoral training. The NHLBI sponsors National Wear Red Day and the Heart Truth campaign, a national awareness campaign for women about heart disease. The research arm of the institute is organized into the following divisions: List of NHLBI directors from 1948 - present 39°00′13″N 77°06′05″W  /  39.00356°N 77.10133°W  / 39.00356; -77.10133 Research Research

9657-469: The humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method . Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use

9768-409: The inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, the requirement that selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative, government influence including overt and covert censorship , the influence of the owners of the news source, concentration of media ownership , the selection of staff, the preferences of an intended audience , and pressure from advertisers . Bias has been

9879-426: The independent or dependent variables. Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics . Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in

9990-450: The initial price seem more reasonable even if they are still higher than what the car is worth. Apophenia, also known as patternicity, or agenticity, is the human tendency to perceive meaningful patterns within random data. Apophenia is well documented as a rationalization for gambling. Gamblers may imagine that they see patterns in the numbers which appear in lotteries , card games , or roulette wheels . One manifestation of this

10101-406: The interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. The inclination represents a major issue with self-report questionnaires; of special concern are self-reports of abilities, personalities , sexual behavior , and drug use . Selection bias is the conscious or unconscious bias introduced into a study by the way individuals, groups or data are selected for analysis, if such

10212-404: The late 2000s. Peer review is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for publication. Usually, the peer review process involves experts in

10323-701: The management of blood resources. Research by scientific institutions and individuals is supported by research grants and contracts through the NHLBI Extramural Program, while the NHLBI Division of Intramural Research conducts state-of-the-art research on the NIH Bethesda campus in its own laboratories. For health professionals and the public, the NHLBI conducts educational activities, including development and dissemination of materials in

10434-501: The necessity of external circumstances. There are a wide range of sorts of attribution biases, such as the ultimate attribution error , fundamental attribution error , actor-observer bias , and self-serving bias . Examples of attribution bias: Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for , interpret , favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses while giving disproportionately less attention to information that contradicts it. The effect

10545-480: The original research is to produce new knowledge rather than present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified). Original research can take various forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology , results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers

10656-451: The outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true. A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within

10767-423: The overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps. Most research begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study. The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before

10878-446: The research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure): There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and

10989-571: The research profession. The word research is derived from the Middle French " recherche ", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier," a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577. Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there are similarities, there does not appear to be

11100-697: The research questions they aim to answer: Qualitative research refers to much more subjective non-quantitative, use different methods of collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data for meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols metaphors of things. Qualitative research further classified into the following types: Ethnography: This research mainly focus on culture of group of people which includes share attributes, language, practices, structure, value, norms and material things, evaluate human lifestyle. Ethno: people, Grapho: to write, this disciple may include ethnic groups, ethno genesis, composition, resettlement and social welfare characteristics. Phenomenology : It

11211-439: The same elite status as those of North America and Europe, because limitations on the availability of resources including high-quality paper and sophisticated image-rendering software and printing tools render these publications less able to satisfy standards currently carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing industry. These limitations in turn result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among

11322-452: The same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer reviews being done for free has however brought many pitfalls which are also indicative of why most peer reviewers decline many invitations to review. It was observed that publications from periphery countries rarely rise to

11433-414: The same, not significantly more or less valuable, probably attached emotionally to different groups and different land. The halo effect and the horn effect are when an observer's overall impression of a person, organization , brand , or product influences their feelings about specifics of that entity's character or properties. The name halo effect is based on the concept of the saint's halo , and

11544-413: The set of publications holding prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars' research efforts, and this under-representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge available worldwide. The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free and belongs to

11655-452: The short run to eliminate the appearance of unethical behavior, rather than the behavior itself. Regulatory capture is a form of political corruption that can occur when a regulatory agency , created to act in the public interest , instead advances the commercial or political concerns of special interest groups that dominate the industry or sector it is charged with regulating. Regulatory capture occurs because groups or individuals with

11766-447: The status quo, and later experimenters justify their own reporting bias by observing that previous experimenters reported different results. Social desirability bias is a bias within social science research where survey respondents can tend to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed positively by others. It can take the form of over-reporting laudable behavior, or under-reporting undesirable behavior. This bias interferes with

11877-552: The subject back to the task when they ask for validation or questions. Funding bias refers to the tendency of a scientific study to support the interests of the study's financial sponsor. This phenomenon is recognized sufficiently that researchers undertake studies to examine bias in past published studies. It can be caused by any or all of: a conscious or subconscious sense of obligation of researchers towards their employers, misconduct or malpractice , publication bias , or reporting bias . Full text on net (or FUTON) bias

11988-421: The techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher,

12099-634: The triannual Journal for Artistic Research ( JAR ), an international, online, open access , and peer-reviewed journal for the identification, publication, and dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the Research Catalogue (RC), a searchable, documentary database of artistic research, to which anyone can contribute. Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art. In 2016,

12210-418: The valid results of one study. Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions. In comparative politics, this can result from using a single-country study, rather than a study design that uses data from multiple countries. Despite the issue of generalizability, single-country studies have risen in prevalence since

12321-478: The world, the choices they then make are influenced by their creation of a frame. Cultural bias is the related phenomenon of interpreting and judging phenomena by standards inherent to one's own culture. Numerous such biases exist, concerning cultural norms for color, location of body parts, mate selection , concepts of justice , linguistic and logical validity, acceptability of evidence , and taboos . Ordinary people may tend to imagine other people as basically

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