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72-520: NOO worked closely with a wide range of organisations to assist policy makers and practitioners who were involved in understanding and tackling obesity at population level. It did this through analysing and interpreting research and data to produce reports and briefings. To support these activities it also produced analytical and data visualisation tools. These are used, for example, to map obesity and associated determinants at national, regional and local levels. Members of NOO were instrumental in establishing

144-444: A common purpose , although this does not align with how it has been measured. Social capital is classified into bridging and bonding. Bridging social capital refers to the weak ties individuals form in heterogeneous limited interactions that is more likely to provide valuable new information. Bonding social capital refers to strong ties where the intimate relations people feel close to and trust. Social capital has been used to explain

216-733: A "regional health observatory", "urban health observatory", or "national health observatory". In 2016, a study in the European Journal of Public Health catalogued at least 150 public health observatories worldwide, and that their main functions were reporting on health, performing data analysis , and supporting evidence-based decision-making. A public health observatory does not generate primary data itself, and instead focuses on synthesizing and collecting existing data. Environmental health , diet , recreation , outdoor education , exercise and other concerns are explored by some public health observatories. The term observatoire

288-459: A breakdown of traditional bonds and the progressive development of anomie and alienation in society. The power of community governance has been stressed by many philosophers from antiquity to the 18th century, from Aristotle to Thomas Aquinas , and Edmund Burke . This vision was strongly criticised at the end of the 18th century, with the development of the idea of Homo Economicus and subsequently with rational choice theory . Such

360-528: A definition. In the first half of the 19th century, de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital. He observed that Americans were prone to meeting at as many gatherings as possible to discuss all possible issues of state, economics, or the world that could be witnessed. The high levels of transparency caused greater participation from the people and thus allowed for democracy to work better. L. J. Hanifan 's 1916 article regarding local support for rural schools

432-436: A network-based conception for characterizing the social capital of collectivities (such as organizations or business clusters), Lester, Maheshwari, and McLain (2013) note that negative social capital may be the cause for disadvantageous differences among minority firms versus majority firms. While studying norms among African-American family firms and Euro-American family firms, Lester et al. noted that negative social capital

504-646: A process could lead to the very inequality social capital attempts to resolve. While Coleman viewed social capital as a relatively neutral resource, he did not deny the class reproduction that could result from accessing such capital, given that individuals worked toward their own benefit. Even though Coleman never truly addresses Pierre Bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with Bourdieu's argument set forth in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture . Bourdieu and Coleman were fundamentally different at

576-525: A producer of " civic engagement " and also a broad societal measure of communal health. He also transforms social capital from a resource possessed by individuals to an attribute of collectives, focusing on norms and trust as producers of social capital to the exclusion of networks. Mahyar Arefi (2003) identifies consensus-building as a direct positive indicator of social capital. Consensus implies "shared interest" and agreement among various actors and stakeholders to induce collective action. Collective action

648-417: A set of theories became dominant in the last centuries, but many thinkers questioned the complicated relationship between modern society and the importance of old institutions , in particular family and traditional communities. The concept that underlies social capital has a much longer history; thinkers exploring the relation between associational life and democracy were using similar concepts regularly by

720-414: A social network, adhering to the norms of that group, allowing him to later access the resources (e.g. social relationships) gained over time. If, in the case of education, he uses these resources to better his educational outcomes, thereby enabling him to become socially mobile , he effectively has worked to reiterate and reproduce the stratification of society, as social capital has done little to alleviate

792-455: A table listing essential and desirable data to be collected; and a detailed description of each data item in the table. The SEF is intended to help people to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. The aim of the SEF is to increase the number and quality of evaluations and this in turn will support the generation of evidence-based practice. The SEF was developed following extensive consultation with

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864-415: A wide range of interested parties, including practitioners, academic experts, and representatives from public health observatories, regional public health groups, primary care trusts and other relevant organisations. The SEF lists the minimum data necessary for a meaningful evaluation; alongside these it also lists a further set of desirable data that would enhance the evaluation. Supporting material explains

936-400: Is women's entry into the workforce , which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations . Technological transformation of leisure (e.g., television) is another cause of declining social capital, as stated by Putnam. This offered a reference point from which several studies assessed social capital measurements by how media

1008-442: Is "the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively". It involves the effective functioning of social groups through interpersonal relationships , a shared sense of identity , a shared understanding, shared norms , shared values , trust , cooperation , and reciprocity . Some have described it as a form of capital that produces public goods for

1080-425: Is a necessary antecedent for the development of the more powerful form of bridging social capital. Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other. As social capital bonds and stronger homogeneous groups form, the likelihood of bridging social capital is attenuated. Bonding social capital can also perpetuate sentiments of a certain group, allowing for

1152-406: Is approaching at which social capital comes to be applied to so many events and in so many different contexts as to lose any distinct meaning." The term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital , as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits. However, the analogy may be misleading in that, unlike financial forms of capital, social capital

1224-430: Is by Lyda Hanifan in 1916 (see 20th century below). The debate of community versus modernization of society and individualism has been the most discussed topic among the founders of sociology : such theorists as Tönnies (1887), Durkheim (1893), Simmel (1905), Weber (1946) were convinced that industrialisation and urbanization were transforming social relationships in an irreversible way. They observed

1296-407: Is created equally. The value of a specific source of social capital depends in no small part on the socio-economic position of the source with society. On top of this, Portes (1998) has identified four negative consequences of social capital: Social capital (in the institutional Robert Putnam sense) may also lead to bad outcomes if the political institution and democracy in a specific country

1368-465: Is encouraged through the strengthening of intra-group relationships (bonding social capital). The negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging . Without "bridging" social capital, "bonding" groups can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society and, most importantly, from groups with which bridging must occur in order to denote an "increase" in social capital. Bonding social capital

1440-519: Is engaged strategically to build social capital. In "Social Capital, Civil Society, and Development", political economist Francis Fukuyama defines social capital as generally understood rules that enable people to cooperate such as the norm of reciprocity or religious doctrine like Christianity . Social capital is formed by repeated interactions over time and, he argues, is critical for development and difficult to generate through public policy. The importance of social capital for economic development

1512-589: Is high (US) or where ethnic heterogeneity is high ( Eastern Europe ), it was found that citizens lacked in both kinds of social capital and were overall far less trusting of others than members of homogenous communities were found to be. Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community. These findings challenge previous beliefs that exposure to diversity strengthens social capital, either through bridging social gaps between ethnicities or strengthening in-group bonds. It

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1584-406: Is linked to the concept's duality, coming because "it has a hard nosed economic feel while restating the importance of the social." For researchers, the term is popular partly due to the broad range of outcomes it can explain; the multiplicity of uses for social capital has led to a multiplicity of definitions. Social capital has been used at various times to explain superior managerial performance,

1656-611: Is not depleted by use; instead, it is depleted by non-use ( use it or lose it ). In this respect, it is similar to the economic concept of human capital . Robison, Schmid, and Siles (2002) review various definitions of social capital and conclude that many do not satisfy the formal requirements of a definition. They assert that definitions must be of the form A=B, while many explanations of social capital describe what it can be used to achieve, where it resides, how it can be created, or what it can transform. In addition, they argue that many proposed definitions of social capital fail to satisfy

1728-625: Is not strong enough and is therefore overpowered by the social capital groups. "Civil society and the collapse of the Weimar Republic " suggests that "it was weak political institutionalization rather than a weak civil society that was Germany's main problem during the Wihelmine and Weimar eras." Because the political institutions were so weak people looked to other outlets. "Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with

1800-399: Is one of the first occurrences of the term social capital in reference to social cohesion and personal investment in the community. In defining the concept, Hanifan contrasts social capital with material goods by defining it as: I do not refer to real estate, or to personal property or to cold cash, but rather to that in life which tends to make these tangible substances count for most in

1872-457: Is socialized. Thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to. Out of habitus comes field, the manner in which one integrates and displays their habitus. To this end, it is the social exchange and interaction between two or more social actors . To illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society. He therefore accumulates social capital by involving himself in

1944-518: Is that these norms of behavior reduce transaction cost of exchange such as legal contracts and government regulations. Fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare. Referencing Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America , and what he described as the art of association of

2016-456: Is thus an indicator of increased social capital. In Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), Harvard political scientist Robert D. Putnam writes: Henry Ward Beecher 's advice a century ago to 'multiply picnics' is not entirely ridiculous today. We should do this, ironically, not because it will be good for America – though it will be – but because it will be good for us. Putnam speaks of two main components of

2088-458: Is used in French (and has been since at least 1976 ) to denote any institution that compiles and presents data on a particular subject or for a particular area, generally established so that local or regional policymakers can make decisions with access to interpreted data appropriate to the scope of their geographical area. A survey in 1999 recorded that there were over 500 different observatories at

2160-613: Is very important for policy makers to monitor the level of perceived socio-economic threat from immigrants because negative attitudes towards immigrants make integration difficult and affect social capital. Varshney (2001) studied the correlation between the presence of interethnic networks ( bridging ) versus intra-ethnic ones ( bonding ) on ethnic violence in India . He argues that interethnic networks are agents of peace because they build bridges and manage tensions, by noting that if communities are organized only along intra-ethnic lines and

2232-710: The Child and Maternal Health Intelligence Network (ChiMat), still operating as of 2021; the Injury Observatory for Britain and Ireland (IOBI) , the Mental Health Observatory, and the National Obesity Observatory are all no longer in operation. The London Health Observatory pioneered methods in measuring social capital and how this affects healing and health in general. Social capital Social capital

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2304-500: The trust , reciprocity , information , and cooperation associated with social networks." It "creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well." Meanwhile, negative norms of reciprocity serve as disincentives for detrimental and violent behaviors. James Coleman defined social capital functionally as "a variety of entities with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of actors...within

2376-427: The " self-policing" mechanism proposed by Fearon and Laitin, 1996) may lead to the same result as interethnic engagement. James Coleman (1988) has indicated that social capital eventually led to the creation of human capital for the future generation. Human capital , a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital. John Field (2003) suggested that such

2448-542: The 19th century, drawing on the work of earlier writers such as James Madison ( The Federalist Papers ) and Alexis de Tocqueville ( Democracy in America ) to integrate concepts of social cohesion and connectedness into the pluralist tradition in American political science . John Dewey may have made the first direct mainstream use of social capital in The School and Society in 1899, though he did not offer

2520-599: The American propensity for civil association , Fukuyama argues social capital is what produces a civil society . While civic engagement is an important part of democracy and development, Fukuyama states that, "one person's civic engagement is another's rent-seeking ." Therefore, while social capital can facilitate economic development by reducing transaction cost and increasing productivity, social capital can also distort democracy if civic association enables special interest to gain special favors. However, Fukuyama argues despite

2592-652: The National Child Measurement Programme (NCMP). Analysis and interpretation of the NCMP dataset is a core element of NOO's work. NOO is a member of the Association of Public Health Observatories . The Standard Evaluation Framework (SEF) for weight management interventions was published by the NOO in 2009. It comprises a guidance document in three parts: an introductory guide to evaluation ;

2664-452: The actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition." His treatment of the concept is instrumental, focusing on the advantages to possessors of social capital and the "deliberate construction of sociability for the purpose of creating this resource ." Quite contrary to Putnam's positive view of social capital, Bourdieu employs

2736-422: The bonding of certain individuals together upon a common radical ideal. The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation. In extreme cases ethnic cleansing may result if the relationship between different groups is so strongly negative. In mild cases, it isolates certain communities such as suburbs of cities because of the bonding social capital and

2808-401: The built environment. The SEF is very much a work in progress, and will itself be subject to an evaluation. Public health observatory A public health observatory is an organization or program that monitors and reports on the public health of a particular region or topic in order to inform health policy . Depending on the geographical area or focus of work, it may also be called

2880-544: The character of the connection between individuals. This is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network. Hazleton and Kennan (2000) added a third angle, that of communication. Communication is needed to access and use social capital through exchanging information, identifying problems and solutions, and managing conflict. According to Boisot (1995), and Boland & Tenkasi (1995), meaningful communication requires at least some sharing context between

2952-560: The concept to demonstrate a mechanism for the generational reproduction of inequality. Bourdieu thus points out that the wealthy and powerful use their "old boys network" or other social capital to maintain advantages for themselves, their social class, and their children. Thomas Sander defines it as "the collective value of all social networks (who people know), and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other ( norms of reciprocity )." Social capital, in this view, emphasizes "specific benefits that flow from

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3024-911: The concept, the creation of which Putnam credits to Ross Gittell and Avis Vidal: Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital. The distinction is useful in highlighting how social capital may not always be beneficial for society as a whole (though it is always an asset for those individuals and groups involved). Horizontal networks of individual citizens and groups that enhance community productivity and cohesion are said to be positive social capital assets whereas self-serving exclusive gangs and hierarchical patronage systems that operate at cross purposes to societal interests can be thought of as negative social capital burdens on society. Similar to Putnam, Daniel P. Aldrich describes three mechanisms of social capital: Aldrich also applies

3096-448: The daily lives of people, namely, goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy and social intercourse among a group of individuals and families who make up a social unit.… If he may come into contact with his neighbour, and they with other neighbours, there will be an accumulation of social capital, which may immediately satisfy his social needs and which may bear a social potentiality sufficient to the substantial improvement of living conditions in

3168-406: The degree to which social capital serves as a resource – be it for public good or private benefit. Robert D. Putnam (1993) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime. In contrast, others focus on

3240-633: The fact that people in these communities spend so much time away from places that build bridging social capital. Edwards and Foley, as editors of a special edition of the American Behavioral Scientist on "Social Capital, Civil Society and Contemporary Democracy", raised two key issues in the study of social capital. First, social capital is not equally available to all, in much the same way that other forms of capital are differently available. Geographic and social isolation limit access to this resource. Second, not all social capital

3312-531: The failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler's rise to power ." In this article about the fall of the Weimar Republic , the author makes the claim that Hitler rose to power so quickly because he was able to mobilize the groups towards one common goal. Even though German society was, at the time, a "joining" society these groups were fragmented and their members did not use

3384-438: The focus of a World Bank research programme and the subject of several mainstream books, including Robert Putnam 's Bowling Alone , and Putnam & Lewis Feldstein 's Better Together . All of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades. The appearance of the modern social capital conceptualization is a new way to look at this debate, keeping together

3456-410: The founders, with a more pessimistic emphasis on the development of society. In the words of Stein (1960:1): "The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level." Jane Jacobs used the term early in the 1960s. Although she did not explicitly define

3528-416: The growth of entrepreneurial firms, improved performance of functionally diverse groups, the value derived from strategic alliances, and enhanced supply-chain relations. "A resource that actors derive from specific social structures and then use to pursue their interests; it is created by changes in the relationship among actors" (Baker 1990, p. 619). Early attempts to define social capital focused on

3600-413: The importance of community to build generalized trust and the same time, the importance of individual free choice, in order to create a more cohesive society. It is for this reason that social capital generated so much interest in the academic and political world. Social capital has multiple definitions, interpretations, and uses. David Halpern argues that the popularity of social capital for policymakers

3672-407: The improved performance of diverse groups, the growth of entrepreneurial firms, superior managerial performance, enhanced supply chain relations, the value derived from strategic alliances , and the evolution of communities . While it has been suggested that the term social capital was in intermittent use from about 1890, before becoming widely used in the late 1990s, the earliest credited use

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3744-585: The interconnections with other communities are very weak or even nonexistent, then ethnic violence is quite likely. Three main implications of intercommunal ties explain their worth: This is a useful distinction; nevertheless, its implication on social capital can only be accepted if one espouses the functionalist understanding of the latter concept. Indeed, it can be argued that interethnic, as well as intra-ethnic networks can serve various purposes, either increasing or diminishing social capital. In fact, Varshney himself notes that intra-ethnic policing (equivalent to

3816-714: The local, regional, and national levels, focusing on a variety of topics. From 1999 until 2013, there was a network of public health observatories in England until they were absorbed into Public Health England , which was itself moved into the UK Health Security Agency in 2021. There are currently operating health observatories in Wales and Scotland ; there was at some point one in Ireland . There are and were also some topic-specific observatories, such as

3888-483: The norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them." In the view of Putnam and his followers, social capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy . Putnam says that social capital is declining in the United States. This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation. Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital

3960-520: The parties to such exchange. The cognitive dimension focuses on the shared meaning, representations and interpretations that individuals or groups have with one another. Whereas some scholars, most prominently Robert D. Putnam , posit that social capital has positive ends, a sizable body of literature finds that social capital can have adverse effects. Research by Sheri Berman and Dylan Riley, as well as economists Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, and Hans-Joachim Voth, have linked civic associations to

4032-561: The private benefits derived from the web of social relationships in which individual actors find themselves. This is reflected in Nan Lin 's concept of social capital as "Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace." This may subsume the concepts of some others such as Bourdieu, Flap and Eriksson. Newton (1997) treats social capital as a subjective phenomenon formed by values and attitudes that influence interactions. Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998), in their examination of

4104-516: The reasons behind these classifications and provides guidance on how to collect data. The SEF also provides basic guidance on how to conduct an evaluation for people with limited experience in this area. The SEF can be used with a range of interventions including those conducted with individuals on a one-to-one basis or in groups, and in clinical and community settings. It is not intended for use with surgical and medicinal approaches to weight management, or in broader programmes that include changes to

4176-421: The requirements of capital. They propose that social capital be defined as sympathy : the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital. This proposition appears to follow Adam Smith , Theory of Moral Sentiments to some degree, but Smith's conceptualization of sympathy (particularly in the first two chapters of this work) appear more concerned with

4248-682: The right and the will to become a dominant global power. Additionally, in his essay "A Criticism of Putnam's Theory of Social Capital", Michael Shindler expands upon Berman's argument that Weimar social clubs and similar associations in countries that did not develop democracy, were organized in such a way that they fostered a "we" instead of an "I" mentality among their members, by arguing that groups which possess cultures that stress solidarity over individuality, even ones that are "horizontally" structured and which were also common to pre- Soviet Eastern Europe , will not engender democracy if they are politically aligned with non-democratic ideologies. Using

4320-409: The rise of fascist movements. Pierre Bourdieu 's work tends to show how social capital can be used practically to produce or reproduce inequality, demonstrating for instance how people gain access to powerful positions through the direct and indirect employment of social connections. An example of the complexities of the effects of negative social capital is violence or criminal gang activity that

4392-591: The risk of society having too much social capital, it is nonetheless worse to have too little and be unable to organize for public goods and welfare enhancing activity. Carlos García Timón describes that the structural dimensions of social capital relate to an individual ability to make weak and strong ties to others within a system. This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network. The differences between weak and strong ties are explained by Granovetter (1973). Bridging social capital refers to

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4464-404: The role of social capital in the creation of intellectual capital , suggest that social capital should be considered in terms of three clusters: structural, relational, and cognitive. A number of scholars have raised concerns about the imprecision in defining social capital. Portes (2000), for example, notes that the term has become so widely used, including in mainstream media , that "the point

4536-481: The roles of acceptance or congruence – in ethics or virtue – in evaluating an individual's 'propriety of action'. Social capital is different from the economic theory of social capitalism , which challenges the idea that socialism and capitalism are mutually exclusive. In The Forms of Capital , Pierre Bourdieu distinguishes between three forms of capital: economic capital , cultural capital and social capital. He defines social capital as "the aggregate of

4608-466: The skills they learned in their club associations to better their society, but to encourage their values across all cultures to provide a better society for people. They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic. Hitler was able to capitalize on this by uniting these highly bonded groups under the common cause of bringing Germany to the top of world politics. The former world order had been destroyed during World War I , and Hitler believed that Germany had

4680-522: The structure"  – that is, social capital is anything that facilitates individual or collective action , generated by networks of relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms. In Coleman's conception, social capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which it is put. According to Robert D. Putnam , social capital refers to "connections among individuals – social networks and

4752-488: The system as a whole. This may be one negative aspect of social capital, but seems to be an inevitable one in and of itself, as are all forms of capital. Compared to Bourdieu, Robert D. Putnam has used the concept in a much more positive light: though he was at first careful to argue that social capital was a neutral term, stating "whether or not [the] shared are praiseworthy is, of course, entirely another matter," his work on American society tends to frame social capital as

4824-464: The term social capital , her usage referred to the value of networks. Political scientist Robert Salisbury advanced the term as a critical component of interest group formation in his 1969 article "An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups" in the Midwest Journal of Political Science . Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu used the term in 1972 in his Outline of a Theory of Practice , and clarified

4896-408: The term some years later in contrast to cultural , economic , administrative capital, physical capital , political capital , social capital and symbolic capital . Sociologists James Coleman (1988), as well as Barry Wellman & Scot Wortley (1990), adopted Glenn Loury 's 1977 definition in developing and popularising the concept. In the late 1990s, the concept gained popularity, serving as

4968-401: The theoretical level (as Bourdieu believed the actions of individuals were rarely ever conscious, but more so only a result of their habitus being enacted within a particular field, but this realization by both seems to undeniably connect their understanding of the more latent aspects of social capital. According to Bourdieu, habitus refers to the social context within which a social actor

5040-422: The weak ties that individuals with heterogeneous limited interactions form. Bridging social capital is more likely to provide valuable new information (Moshkovitz and Hayat, 2021). Some others describes the weak and strong ties relationship as bonding and bridging social capital. Bonding social capital refers to strong ties: the intimate relationships people feel close to and trust. The relational dimension focuses on

5112-635: The whole community. The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours. Following the works of Tönnies (1887) and Weber (1946), reflection on social links in modern society continued with interesting contributions in the 1950s and in the 1960s. In particular, mass society theory  – as developed by Daniel Bell (1962), Robert Nisbet (1969), Maurice R. Stein (1960), William H. Whyte (1956)  – proposed themes similar to those of

5184-511: Was created when the owner of the company was pressured to engage in social behavior not conducive to firm profits. Robert Putnam , in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities. Putnam's study regarding the issue argued that in American areas with a lack of homogeneity, some individuals neither participated in bonding nor bridging social capital. In societies where immigration

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