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30-553: NNFCC is a consultancy company specialising in bioenergy , biofuels and bio-based products . Established by the UK Government in 2003 as the National Non-Food Crops Centre (NNFCC) to help extend the competitive non-food uses of crops, NNFCC is now an international consultancy providing advice on the conversion of biomass to bioenergy, biofuels and bio-based products. The company is based in

60-832: A 40–50% reduction in transportation costs. Importantly, pelletizing or briquetting primarily increases energy density. Torrefaction alone typically decreases energy density, though it makes the material easier to make into pellets or briquettes. Torrefied biomass can be produced from a wide variety of raw biomass feedstocks that yield similar product properties. Most woody and herbaceous biomass consists of three main polymeric structures: cellulose , hemicellulose and lignin . Together these are called lignocellulose . Torrefaction primarily drives moisture and oxygen-rich and hydrogen-rich functional groups from these structures, producing similar char-like structures in all three cases. Therefore, most biomass fuels, regardless of origin, produce torrefied products with similar properties – with

90-868: A fuel directly (e.g. wood logs), the terms biomass and biofuel have sometimes been used interchangeably. However, the term biomass usually denotes the biological raw material the fuel is made of. The terms biofuel or biogas are generally reserved for liquid or gaseous fuels respectively. Wood and wood residues is the largest biomass energy source today. Wood can be used as a fuel directly or processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. Other plants can also be used as fuel, for instance maize , switchgrass , miscanthus and bamboo . The main waste feedstocks are wood waste, agricultural waste , municipal solid waste , and manufacturing waste . Upgrading raw biomass to higher grade fuels can be achieved by different methods, broadly classified as thermal, chemical, or biochemical: Thermal conversion processes use heat as

120-430: A significant climate change mitigation potential if implemented correctly. Most of the recommended pathways to limit global warming include substantial contributions from bioenergy in 2050 (average at 200 EJ). The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines bioenergy as "energy derived from any form of biomass or its metabolic by-products". It goes on to define biomass in this context as "organic material excluding

150-592: A wide range of organisations, including British Airways , INEOS , BASF , Braskem and NatureWorks . NNFCC also receive funding and is a delivery partner for the UK Government's Department for Energy and Climate Change . In addition to the consultancy offered by NNFCC, the company also have paid membership for businesses and individuals. This agriculture article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bioenergy Bioenergy can help with climate change mitigation but in some cases

180-410: Is a promising step towards overcoming the logistical challenges in developing large-scale sustainable energy solutions, by making it easier to transport and store. Pellets or briquettes have higher density, contain less moisture, and are more stable in storage than the biomass they are derived from. Torrefaction is a thermochemical treatment of biomass at 200 to 320 °C (392 to 608 °F). It

210-940: Is also agreement that local environmental impacts can be problematic. For example, increased biomass demand can create significant social and environmental pressure in the locations where the biomass is produced. The impact is primarily related to the low surface power density of biomass. The low surface power density has the effect that much larger land areas are needed in order to produce the same amount of energy, compared to for instance fossil fuels . Long-distance transport of biomass have been criticised as wasteful and unsustainable, and there have been protests against forest biomass export in Sweden and Canada. In 2020 bioenergy produced 58 EJ ( exajoules ) of energy, compared to 172 EJ from crude oil , 157 EJ from coal, 138 EJ from natural gas , 29 EJ from nuclear, 16 EJ from hydro and 15 EJ from wind , solar and geothermal combined. Most of

240-429: Is being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production, and biodiesel can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats. The surface power production densities of a crop will determine how much land is required for production. The average lifecycle surface power densities for biomass, wind, hydro and solar power production are 0.30 W/m , 1 W/m , 3 W/m and 5 W/m , respectively (power in

270-445: Is carried out under atmospheric pressure and in the absence of oxygen . During the torrefaction process, the water contained in the biomass as well as superfluous volatiles are released, and the biopolymers ( cellulose , hemicellulose and lignin ) partly decompose, giving off various types of volatiles. The final product is the remaining solid, dry, blackened material that is referred to as torrefied biomass or bio-coal . During

300-459: Is harvested unsustainably. Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some cases, the impacts of land-use change , cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels. Bioenergy can either mitigate (i.e. reduce) or increase greenhouse gas emissions . There

330-453: Is known as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and can result in net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere. However, BECCS can also result in net positive emissions depending on how the biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported. Deployment of BECCS at scales described in some climate change mitigation pathways would require converting large amounts of cropland. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)

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360-694: Is made by fermentation , mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn , sugarcane , or sweet sorghum . Bioethanol is widely used in the United States and in Brazil . Biodiesel is produced from the oils in for instance rapeseed or sugar beets and is the most common biofuel in Europe. Second-generation biofuels (also called "advanced biofuels") utilize non-food -based biomass sources such as perennial energy crops and agricultural residues/waste. The feedstock used to make

390-448: Is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) that is produced. Greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy can be low because when vegetation is harvested for bioenergy, new vegetation can grow that will absorb CO 2 from the air through photosynthesis . After the biomass is harvested, energy ("bioenergy") is extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels , etc.) as

420-474: The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis . Like coal, biomass can be converted into multiple commodity chemicals. Biochemical processes have developed in nature to break down the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these can be harnessed. In most cases, microorganisms are used to perform the conversion. The processes are called anaerobic digestion , fermentation , and composting . Based on

450-590: The BioCentre on the York Science Park and was opened in November 2003 by Larry Whitty, Baron Whitty . The current Managing Director is Dr Adrian Higson. NNFCC specialises in providing information and knowledge on the supply of biomass, its use in industrial applications and the fate of biomaterials at their end-of-life. NNFCC operate in five separate sectors: The company undertakes consultancy for

480-584: The atmosphere in any case." Torrefaction Torrefaction of biomass , e.g., wood or grain, is a mild form of pyrolysis at temperatures typically between 200 and 320 °C. Torrefaction changes biomass properties to provide a better fuel quality for combustion and gasification applications. Torrefaction produces a relatively dry product, which reduces or eliminates its potential for organic decomposition . Torrefaction combined with densification creates an energy-dense fuel carrier of 20 to 21  GJ /ton lower heating value (LHV). Torrefaction causes

510-643: The biomass is utilized through combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis or other conversion methods. Using bioenergy releases CO 2 . In BECCS, some of the CO 2 is captured before it enters the atmosphere, and stored underground using carbon capture and storage technology. Under some conditions, BECCS can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if

540-425: The dominant mechanism to upgrade biomass into a better and more practical fuel. The basic alternatives are torrefaction , pyrolysis , and gasification , these are separated mainly by the extent to which the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed (mainly controlled by the availability of oxygen and conversion temperature). Many chemical conversions are based on established coal-based processes, such as

570-552: The exception of ash properties, which largely reflect the original fuel ash content and composition. Torrefied biomass has hydrophobic properties, i.e., repels water, and when combined with densification make bulk storage in open air feasible. All biological activity is stopped, reducing the risk of fire and stopping biological decomposition like rotting. Torrefaction of biomass leads to improved grindability of biomass. This leads to more efficient co-firing in existing coal-fired power stations or entrained-flow gasification for

600-531: The form of heat for biomass, and electricity for wind, hydro and solar). Lifecycle surface power density includes land used by all supporting infrastructure, manufacturing, mining/harvesting and decommissioning. Another estimate puts the values at 0.08 W/m for biomass, 0.14 W/m for hydro, 1.84 W/m for wind, and 6.63 W/m for solar ( median values, with none of the renewable sources exceeding 10 W/m ). Carbon capture and storage technology can be used to capture emissions from bioenergy power plants. This process

630-412: The fuels either grow on arable land but are byproducts of the main crop, or they are grown on marginal land. Waste from industry, agriculture, forestry and households can also be used for second-generation biofuels, using e.g. anaerobic digestion to produce biogas , gasification to produce syngas or by direct combustion. Cellulosic biomass , derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses,

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660-581: The future, more of the harvested pulpwood must go to pellet mills. However, the harvest of pulpwood (tree thinnings) removes the possibility for these trees to grow old and therefore maximize their carbon holding capacity. Compared to pulpwood, sawmill residues have lower net emissions: "Some types of biomass feedstock can be carbon-neutral, at least over a period of a few years, including in particular sawmill residues. These are wastes from other forest operations that imply no additional harvesting, and if otherwise burnt as waste or left to rot would release carbon to

690-436: The global bioenergy is produced from forest resources. Generally, bioenergy expansion fell by 50% in 2020. China and Europe are the only two regions that reported significant expansion in 2020, adding 2 GW and 1.2 GW of bioenergy capacity, respectively. Almost all available sawmill residue is already being utilized for pellet production, so there is no room for expansion. For the bioenergy sector to significantly expand in

720-433: The material that is fossilised or embedded in geological formations". This means that coal or other fossil fuels is not a form of biomass in this context. The term traditional biomass for bioenergy means "the combustion of wood, charcoal, agricultural residues and/or animal dung for cooking or heating in open fires or in inefficient stoves as is common in low-income countries ". Since biomass can also be used as

750-465: The material to undergo Maillard reactions . Torrefied biomass can be used as an energy carrier or as a feedstock used in the production of bio-based fuels and chemicals. Biomass can be an important energy source. However, there exists a large diversity of potential biomass sources, each with its own unique characteristics. To create efficient biomass-to-energy chains, torrefaction of biomass, combined with densification ( pelletisation or briquetting ),

780-670: The original biomass. The history of torrefaction dates to the beginning of the 19th century, and gasifiers were used on a large scale during the Second World War. Torrefied and densified biomass has several advantages in different markets, which makes it a competitive option compared to conventional biomass wood pellets . An energy density of 18–20 GJ /m – compared to the 26 to 33 gigajoules per tonne heat content of natural anthracite coal – can be achieved when combined with densification (pelletizing or briquetting) compared to values of 10–11 GJ/m for raw biomass, driving

810-593: The process, the biomass typically loses 20% of its mass (bone dry basis) and 10% of its heating value, with no appreciable change in volume. This energy (the volatiles) can be used as a heating fuel for the torrefaction process. After the biomass is torrefied it can be densified, usually into briquettes or pellets using conventional densification equipment, to increase its mass and energy density and to improve its hydrophobic properties. The final product may repel water and thus can be stored in moist air or rain without appreciable change in moisture content or heating value, unlike

840-441: The required biomass production can increase greenhouse gas emissions or lead to local biodiversity loss . The environmental impacts of biomass production can be problematic, depending on how the biomass is produced and harvested. The IEA 's Net Zero by 2050 scenario calls for traditional bioenergy to be phased out by 2030, with modern bioenergy's share increasing from 6.6% in 2020 to 13.1% in 2030 and 18.7% in 2050. Bioenergy has

870-441: The source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, depending if food crops are used or not: First-generation (or "conventional") biofuels are made from food sources grown on arable lands, such as sugarcane and maize . Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol , an alcohol fuel which serves as an additive to gasoline, or in a fuel cell to produce electricity. Bioethanol

900-422: The trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can displace natural ecosystems , degrade soils , and consume water resources and synthetic fertilisers. Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas

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