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51-452: EPEK was established on 14 January 1950 as an electoral alliance between ex-Prime Minister Emmanouil Tsouderos' Democratic Progressive Party (Dimokratikon Proodeftikon Komma) and General Nikolaos Plastiras' Progressive Liberal Party (Komma Proodeftikon Fileleftheron). King Paul was initially suspicious of Plastiras and his speeches indicated that he was prepared to give amnesty to the defeated Communists. Moreover, General Plastiras had had

102-426: A "superlative staff officer, impeccable in logistic planning and exact calculation, a master of the politics and diplomacy of war", but "with little experience of high command in battle", and a tendency to command from Athens, seldom even visiting the front lines. Papagos' aloof leadership style led to clashes with one of the most important subordinate commanders, the impetuous Lt. General Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos . As

153-686: A defense along the so-called Haliacmon line, considered to be more defensible) as German intervention came closer. After the German invasion on 6 April 1941, outnumbered Greek forces in Macedonia fiercely resisted the German offensive at the Metaxas Line , but were outflanked by the enemy and so Papagos endorsed their surrender. Soon after, the Army of Epirus capitulated and by 23 April, the Greek government

204-662: A member of NATO ; U.S. military bases being allowed on Greek territory and the formation of a powerful and vehemently anti-communist security apparatus. Papagos' tenure also saw the start of the Greek economic miracle , and rising tensions with Britain and Turkey during the Cyprus Emergency over the Cyprus issue . Alexandros Papagos was born in Athens on 9 December 1883. His father was Major General Leonidas Papagos from

255-663: A result of the National Schism . Under the 1917–1920 government of Eleftherios Venizelos , Papagos was sent to internal exile in Ios , Thira , Milos , and Crete . He was recalled to active service in 1920 following the electoral victory of the monarchist parties, with the retroactive rank of lieutenant colonel, serving once more as chief of staff of the Cavalry Brigade and of the Cavalry Division during

306-401: A reward for his services, he was awarded the title of Field Marshal on 28 October 1949, the only Greek career officer to ever hold this rank. He continued to serve in his capacity as Commander-in-Chief until 1951, while Greece was in a state of political instability, with splinter parties and weak politicians unable to provide a firm government. Defunct In May 1951, Papagos resigned from

357-523: A stormy past with the royal family. Plastiras helped establish the Second Hellenic Republic in 1924 and twice - in 1933 and 1935 - tried to overthrow governments alleged to be plotting the restoration of the monarchy, though he now claimed to be fully reconciled with the dynasty. The party served for Plastiras to enter the political scene in order to form a broader alliance around him. Indeed, immediately after its foundation, contacts with

408-430: A system of proportional representation. EPEK received 16.4 per cent of the vote and 45 seats. The EPEK vote was particularly strong in impoverished refugee regions where Plastiras had a sizeable personal following who were mostly left-leaning anyway. The hung parliament that was conceived after the 5 March election made it so a coalition government would have to be formed to constitute a majority in parliament. The leaders of

459-612: The Asia Minor Campaign against the Turkish National Movement of Mustafa Kemal . After the disastrous defeat of the Greek army in August 1922 and the subsequent outbreak of a military revolt , he was once more dismissed from the army, but was recalled in 1926, with the rank of colonel. In 1927 he was appointed as commander of the 1st Cavalry Division. Promoted to major general in 1930, in 1931, he

510-588: The Balkan Wars of 1912–13 attached to the field headquarters of the Crown Prince, and from 1913, King Constantine . In 1913 he was promoted to captain. After the Balkan Wars, he served in the 1st Cavalry Regiment and the staff of III Army Corps . Promoted to major in 1916, he was appointed as chief of staff of the Cavalry Brigade. A confirmed monarchist , he was dismissed from the army in 1917 as

561-640: The Order of the British Empire by the British. He remained retired and held no active military position, but served as grand chamberlain to King Paul and in July 1947 was promoted to the exceptionally rare rank of full general as a token of honour. In January 1949, he was once again appointed Commander-in-Chief in the ongoing Greek Civil War . Papagos led the final victory of the government forces over

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612-583: The Army to enter politics. He founded the Greek Rally (Greek: Ελληνικός Συναγερμός), modelled after De Gaulle's Rassemblement du Peuple Français , and won the September elections with 36.53 percent of the vote. For a time, the Palace feared that he might establish a dictatorship, largely due to his popularity, his image as a strong and determined leader, and the communist defeat in the civil war, which

663-671: The Central Bank of Greece was established, Tsouderos was appointed its first vice-Governor, and in 1931 its Governor. Following the suicide of Prime Minister Alexandros Koryzis on 18 April 1941, amidst the German invasion of Greece , King George II of Greece sought for his successor. Several names, such as Konstantinos Kotzias , the former dictator General Theodoros Pangalos , and the Venizelist general Alexandros Mazarakis-Ainian were discussed, but either rejected or turned down

714-677: The Communist Democratic Army of Greece , employing extensive American material aid (including napalm equipped aircraft [1] ), and the extensive deployment of Hellenic Mountain Raider Companies of Special Forces (LOK) , during the Grammos-Vitsi campaign between February and October of that year. The British officer Christopher Woodhouse , who had been active in the Greek Resistance and knew

765-592: The Democratic Socialists and Liberals to participate and the three-party coalition was sworn in on 15 April with Plastiras at the helm. Members of coalition parties occupied cabinet positions: 6 EPEK, 5 Liberals and 5 Democratic Socialists. It only lasted for four months until August, when this government fell. Nikolaos Plastiras wished to widen the scope of the leniency measures. However, his coalition partners were against any such advances. Plastiras began to frustratedly speak out against his colleagues and

816-721: The General Staff, he actively tried to reorganize and reequip the Army for the oncoming Second World War . At the outbreak of the Greco-Italian War on 28 October 1940, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Army, a post he retained until the capitulation of the Greek armed forces following the German invasion of Greece in April 1941. Papagos directed Greek operations against Italy along the Greek-Albanian border. The Greek army, under his command, managed to halt

867-682: The German occupation authorities and transported to concentration camps in Germany. In late April 1945 he was transferred to Tyrol together with about 140 other prominent inmates of the Dachau concentration camp , where the SS left the prisoners behind. He was liberated by the Fifth U.S. Army on 5 May 1945. Papagos returned to Greece in May 1945. In August 1945, he was appointed an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of

918-631: The Germans, and on the morning of the 23rd, the Greek government left Athens. Tsouderos fled again during the Battle of Crete . He went to the Middle East and later Egypt . Tsouderos headed the Greek government in exile from 29 April 1941 until 13 April 1944. Although he was the internationally recognized as the Prime Minister of Greece (in opposition to the numerous prime ministers who were

969-710: The Greek Civil War, Tsouderos would go on to lead the Democratic Progressive Party ( Dimokratikon Proodefitikon Komma) . During the 1950 Election, Tsouderos formed a coalition government with Nikolaos Plastiras ' Progressive Liberal Center Party ( Komma Proodefitkon Fileleftheron Kentrou) , to form the National Progressive Center Union ( Ethniki Proodetiki Enosis Kentrou) After the end of World War II Tsouderos served in different capacities, until his death at

1020-596: The Italian advance by 8 November and forced them to withdraw deep into Albania between 18 November and 23 December. The successes of the Greek Army brought him fame and applause. A second Italian offensive between 9 and 16 March 1941 was repulsed. Despite this success, Papagos chose to maintain the bulk of the Greek Army in Albania , and was unwilling to order a gradual withdrawal to reinforce the north-eastern border (and

1071-796: The Law School of the University of Athens , but soon switched to a military career. In 1902 he entered the Brussels Military Academy and followed it up with studies at the Cavalry Application School at Ypres . He was commissioned as a cavalry second lieutenant in the Hellenic Army on 15 July 1906. In 1911 he married Maria Kallinski, the daughter of Lt. General Andreas Kallinskis-Roïdis . Promoted to lieutenant in 1911, Papagos participated in

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1122-529: The Liberal Party, the biggest single party of the three, sponsored its leader Sofoklis Venizelos . Venizelos formed a government instead, solely consisting of the Liberal Party and the small ' National Reconstruction Front .' Facing American pressure, Venizelos' government resigned and the King called on Plastiras, leader of the second largest party, to engineer a coalition government. Plastiras managed to get

1173-542: The Liberal element fully withdrew from Plastiras' government on 17 August. And so, Plastiras submitted his resignation. Venizelos formed a new Liberal-led cabinet with the 'National Reconstruction Party' in tow. Two days before the customary vote of confidence, EPEK withdrew support from the new government and the Venizelos government resigned after it failed to obtain the votes to carry on. The election of 9 September 1951

1224-626: The Liberals, and the much smaller Socialist Party - Union of People's Democracy (led by Alexandros Svolos) created an electoral alliance known as the 'Union of the Parties (Enosis Kommaton).' The alliance did little to prevent a Greek Rally landslide victory as the Greek Rally swept the election gaining 247 seats, to just EPEK's 24 and the Liberals' 27; Plastiras was even defeated in his Athens constituency. Plastiras died on 26 July 1953 and

1275-462: The Queen to act as regent in the King's absence. It rationalised succession laws which had previously been ambiguous as to whom the crown should be passed on to. By a technicality, it could be interpreted that Prince George (1869-1957) was rightfully King. The revised constitution was ratified by King Paul on 1 January 1952. On 9 March 1952, Plastiras suffered a stroke and therefore could not carry out

1326-485: The Royal Palace. Papagos' government successfully strived to modernize Greece (where the young and energetic Minister of Public Works, Constantine Karamanlis , first distinguished himself) and restore the economy of a country ruined by 10 years of war, but was criticized by the opposition for doing little to restore social harmony in a country still scarred from the civil war. One of the major issues faced by Papagos

1377-549: The age of 73 in Nervi , Genoa , Italy on 10 February 1956. He was married and had three children: Alexandros Papagos Alexandros Papagos ( Greek : Αλέξανδρος Παπάγος ; 9 December 1883 – 4 October 1955) was a Greek army officer who led the Hellenic Army in World War II and the later stages of the subsequent Greek Civil War . The only Greek career officer to rise to the rank of Field Marshal , Papagos became

1428-566: The attached Note. Most importantly, the letter contained principles that all parties must follow, namely that all constituent parts must recognise Greece as a constitutional monarchy and that the Greek government must give its full support to the United Nations. The first problem regarding premiership of the centrist-led government first arose when the three parties began sponsoring different people. The Democratic Socialists led by Georgios Papandreou and EPEK both sponsored Plastiras, while

1479-433: The conversation. On 3 October, Parliament passed an Electoral Bill converting the system of proportional representation to a 'first-past-the-post' system which divided the country into 99 constituencies and increased the number of deputies from 258 to 300. Parliament dissolved on 9 October; accordingly, Plastiras submitted his resignation to Paul. In anticipation of the election (which discriminated against small parties), EPEK,

1530-432: The country well, considered that his predecessor, Lt. General Dimitrios Giatzis , had "virtually won the war" before his dismissal, but that Papagos' appointment was beneficial because Papagos, through his seniority and prestige, "could impose his own plans and wishes on both the Greek high command and the allied military missions, which had been for some months at loggerheads with each other." He further qualifies Papagos as

1581-419: The defeated Communists. Moreover, General Plastiras had had a stormy past with the royal family. Plastiras helped establish the Second Hellenic Republic in 1924 and twice - in 1933 and 1935 - tried to overthrow governments alleged to be plotting the restoration of the monarchy, though he now claimed to be fully reconciled with the dynasty. In the 1950 legislative election, no less than 44 parties contested under

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1632-508: The duties of office. On 11 June, he left for special treatment in France and Sofoklis Venizelos picked up where Plastiras left off. On 10 August, Plastiras unexpectedly returned from France, claiming that his health was fully restored and that he could resume his duties. Though in his first audience with the King after returning, he seemed unable to concentrate and the Paul summoned and aide to steer

1683-576: The figureheads of the collaborationist Hellenic State ), in practice he had little influence inside Greece's borders. This government was initially located in London, but subsequently moved to Cairo . In Spring of 1944, the Greek Army and Navy mutinied. Among their demands was resignation of the King and Tsouderos. He served in the subsequent government in exile under Sofoklis Venizelos . Following

1734-577: The first Chief of the Hellenic National Defence General Staff from 1950 until his resignation the following year. He then entered politics, founding the nationalist Greek Rally party and becoming the country's Prime Minister after his victory in the 1952 elections . His premiership was shaped by the Cold War and the aftermath of the Greek Civil War, and was defined by several key events, including Greece becoming

1785-468: The island of Syros , who occupied senior posts during his military career, including Director of Personnel at the War Ministry and aide-de-camp to the King. His mother was Maria Averoff, daughter of the politician Dimitrios Averoff and niece of the magnate George Averoff . As a result, Alexandros Papagos was born into the Greek social elite, with close ties to the royal palace. He initially entered

1836-417: The leaders of the three largest parties - Papagos, Plastiras and Venizelos - to discuss the formation of a government. Papagos, as leader of the largest party, was called on first, but he declined on the grounds that his party would not collaborate with the 'old order.' Then, Plastiras and Venizelos agreed to form a coalition government; between the two parties, they had 131 out of 258 seats in the chamber, which

1887-419: The new cabinet of Georgios Kondylis , which immediately declared the restoration of the Greek monarchy . Papagos remained Minister of Military Affairs until Kondylis' resignation on 30 November, and was re-appointed to the post in the succeeding Konstantinos Demertzis cabinet on 13 December 1935 until 5 March 1936. On 5 March 1936 he was named Inspector-General of the Army, holding the post until 31 July. On

1938-582: The next day, 1 August, he was promoted to Chief of the Army General Staff. From his position, he employed the Army to support Ioannis Metaxas ' declaration of dictatorship on 4 August 1936. As head of the army and the palace's man, Papagos was a crucial figure in Metaxas' dictatorial regime . In 1940, a special law was passed to allow him to continue in his position, despite being over the statutory retirement age for general officers. As Chief of

1989-485: The offer. As the evacuation of the Greek government to Crete was being prepared, Tsouderos, as a Venizelist and Cretan, as well as a known Anglophile, emerged as a prominent choice for the post during the 20th. On the next day, after attending a séance in which the spirit of Venizelos urged him to accept, Tsouderos accepted and was sworn in as Prime Minister. On the 20th, the Greek army in Epirus unilaterally surrendered to

2040-406: The other parties of the center began. As a result of the talks, on 13 January 1950, announced the electoral alliance between the ex-Prime Minister Emmanouil Tsouderos' Democratic Progressive Party under the name of "National Progressive Center Union" and the leadership of Plastiras. King Paul was initially suspicious of Plastiras and his speeches indicated that he was prepared to give amnesty to

2091-623: The three centrist parties - The Liberal Party , the Georgios Papandreou Party (the Democratic Socialists) and EPEK - sent a note to the King informing him that they had reached an agreement and could form a government: We have the honour to inform Your Majesty that we, the undersigned party leaders constituting a majority in Parliament, have agreed to form a Government whose policy will be as defined in

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2142-646: Was a political and financial figure of Greece . During World War II , he was the internationally recognized Prime Minister of Greece from 1941 to 1944 as head of the Greek government in exile . He resigned in 1944, following a mutiny in the exiled armed forces Emmanuel Tsouderos was born in 1882 in Rethymno , Crete (then part of the Ottoman Empire ). He studied law at Athens University , and economics in Paris and London. He returned to Crete aged 24, and

2193-536: Was attributed in great part to his leadership. Despite his victory, Papagos was unable to form a government on this majority, and had to wait until the November 1952 elections , where his party tallied an impressive 49 percent of the popular vote, gaining 239 out of 300 seats in Parliament. The Field Marshal, with his popular backing and support from the Americans was an authoritative figure, leading to friction with

2244-670: Was buried with full honours. Although EPEK continued to exist until it was absorbed into the Centre Union in 1961, it was no longer a forceful political element after General Plastiras died and never exceeded 15 seats in a national election under the leadership of Savas Papapolitis . (In alliance the Liberal Party and Socialist Party - Union of People's Democracy ) Emmanouil Tsouderos Emmanouil Tsouderos ( Greek : Εμμανουήλ Τσουδερός , also transliterated as Emmanuel Tsouderos ; 19 July 1882 – 10 February 1956)

2295-418: Was contested by 9 parties in a parliament of 258 seats under a system of 'reinforced' proportional representation. EPEK displaced the Liberal Party as the second largest party in parliament garnering 23.5 per cent of the vote and 74 seats. Meanwhile, the forces of the right had flocked to the standard of Alexandros Papagos ' Greek Rally party which emerged as the largest party with 114 seats. King Paul met with

2346-720: Was elected Member of Parliament of the Cretan Legislature (1906–1912), when Crete had autonomous status under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire and was under the protection of Russia, Britain, France and Italy. After the union of Crete with Greece in December 1913, he was elected to the Hellenic Parliament , and served as Minister of Transportation under Eleftherios Venizelos , and Minister of Finances under Themistoklis Sophoulis . In 1928, when

2397-412: Was forced to flee to Crete. Papagos also resigned from the army on 23 April but did not follow the King and his government into exile, remaining in occupied Greece . He spent most of the occupation in de facto house arrest. In 1943 he established, with other former army officers, a resistance organization, called Military Hierarchy (Στρατιωτική Ιεραρχία). In July of the same year, he was arrested by

2448-551: Was in declining health and unwilling to act. The clashes in Cyprus, however, led to a deterioration of Greco-Turkish relations , culminating in the Istanbul Pogrom in September. In January 1955, Papagos began to develop gastric issues, a result of his imprisonment during World War II; he appointed Stefanos Stefanopoulos to serve as provisional premier during his illness. However, Papagos condition worsened, and he died of

2499-424: Was just enough for a majority. Plastiras was once again sworn in as Prime Minister along with Venizelos, who was to be Foreign Minister and Vice-Premier. On 1 November, Plastiras won a confidence vote by 131 votes to 115. EPEK initiated a revision of the constitution, specifically granting women the vote, empowered the government to expropriate large estates for re-distribution to landless farmers and made provision for

2550-635: Was named Deputy Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff . In 1933–35 he served as Inspector of Cavalry, followed by commands of the I and III Army Corps. He was promoted to Lt. General in 1935. On 10 October 1935, along with the service chiefs of the Navy (Rear Admiral Dimitrios Oikonomou ) and the Air Force (Air Vice Marshal Georgios Reppas ), he toppled the government of Panagis Tsaldaris and became Minister for Military Affairs in

2601-422: Was the Cyprus problem , where the Greek majority had begun clamouring for Enosis (Union) with Greece. Though reluctant to confront Great Britain , demonstrations in the streets of Athens prompted him to order Greece's UN representative to raise the issue of Cyprus before the UN General Assembly in August 1954. When the EOKA campaign to expel the British and initiate Enosis in Cyprus began in 1955, Papagos

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