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110-763: Of all the Chinese warlord air force units to join the centralized Nationalist Chinese Air Force command, the Guangxi Clique was the last to unite, in November 1937; under the continued leadership of generals Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi , now serving in the KMT, they and their airmen would earn honorable recognition at the Battle of Taierzhuang . During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), which

220-491: A raid of Chongqing , attacked 34 Soviet-built Polikarpov I-15s and I-16s of the Chinese Nationalist Air Force , claimed "all 27" of the Chinese fighters shot down without loss to themselves. However Major Louie Yim-qun had in fact nursed his I-15 riddled with 48 bullet holes back to base, and Lieutenant Gao Youxin claimed to have shot down one Zero, but at most 4 Zeroes sustained some damage in

330-401: A "model" province with a progressive administration. As a result, Guangxi was able to supply large numbers of troops in the war effort against Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War . Mitsubishi A6M Zero The Mitsubishi A6M " Zero " is a long-range carrier-capable fighter aircraft formerly manufactured by Mitsubishi Aircraft Company , a part of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries . It

440-672: A ball of fire by now. When the Lockheed P-38 Lightning , armed with four "light barrel" AN/M2 .50 cal. Browning machine guns and one 20 mm autocannon , and the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair , each with six AN/M2 .50 calibre Browning guns, appeared in the Pacific theater, the A6M, with its low-powered engine and lighter armament, was hard-pressed to remain competitive. In combat with an F6F or F4U,

550-530: A degree they were similar to the American prototypes and their further fate is unknown. In western sources the first example figures under the designation Chu XP-0 . 一級上將 General 二級上將 New Guangxi clique The New Guangxi clique ( Chinese : 新桂系 ; pinyin : Xīn Guìxì ), led by Li Zongren , Huang Shaohong , and Bai Chongxi , was a warlord clique during the Republic of China . After

660-523: A dive. Testing also revealed that the Zero could not roll as quickly to the right as it could to the left, which could be exploited. While stable on the ground despite its light weight, the aircraft was designed purely for the attack role, emphasizing long range, maneuverability, and firepower at the expense of protection of its pilot. Most lacked self-sealing tanks and armor plating. Captain Eric Brown ,

770-431: A good rate of roll. Another important maneuver was Lieutenant Commander John S. "Jimmy" Thach 's " Thach Weave ", in which two fighters would fly about 60 m (200 ft) apart. If a Zero latched onto the tail of one of the fighters, the two aircraft would turn toward each other. If the Zero followed his original target through the turn, he would come into a position to be fired on by the target's wingman. This tactic

880-435: A maximum speed of 565 km/h (351 mph) at 6,000 m (20,000 ft), reaching that altitude in 7:01 minutes. Subsequent variants included: Some Model 21 and 52 aircraft were converted to "bakusen" ( fighter-bombers ) by mounting a bomb rack and 250 kg (550 lb) bomb in place of the centerline drop tank. Up to seven Model 52 planes were ostensibly converted into A6M5-K two-seat trainers. Mass production

990-505: A prototype plane exists. It shows a turbo unit mounted in the forward left fuselage. Lack of suitable alloys for use in the manufacture of a turbo-supercharger and its related ducting caused numerous ruptures, resulting in fires and poor performance. Consequently, further development of a turbo-supercharged A6M was cancelled. The lack of acceptance by the Navy suggests that it did not bestow model number 41 or 42 formally, although it appears that

1100-552: A reputation as a dogfighter , achieving an outstanding kill ratio of 12 to 1, but by mid-1942 a combination of new tactics and the introduction of better equipment enabled Allied pilots to engage the Zero on generally equal terms. By 1943, the Zero was less effective against newer Allied fighters. The Zero lacked hydraulic boosting for its ailerons and rudder, rendering it difficult to maneuver at high speeds. Lack of self-sealing fuel tanks also made it more vulnerable than its contemporaries. By 1944, with Allied fighters approaching

1210-453: A small loop of high wing over which placed them out of reach and in position for another attack. By reversing the turn sharply after each attack the leader may get a shot at the enemy while he is climbing away or head on into a scissor if the Jap turns to meet it. In contrast, Allied fighters were designed with ruggedness and pilot protection in mind. The Japanese ace Saburō Sakai described how

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1320-568: A two-blade propeller. It first flew on 1 April, and passed testing within a remarkably short period. By September, it had already been accepted for Navy testing as the A6M1 Type 0 Carrier Fighter, with the only notable change being a switch to a three-bladed propeller to cure a vibration problem. While the Navy was testing the first two prototypes, they suggested that the third be fitted with the 700 kW (940 hp) Nakajima Sakae 12 engine instead. Mitsubishi had its own engine of this class in

1430-644: Is notable that in Chinese sources the family names are given only of the perished commanders of various ranks, while the losses amongst the line pilots are hardly even noted.) Concluding their conversion to the P-43 A in early August 1942, the group returned to Chengdu. In February 1943, preparing for transition to the new American air equipment, the Chinese transferred to India the primary training groups from their flight schools. Only training for reconnaissance and photography continued to be carried out in China. In March 1945

1540-686: Is often regarded as the beginning of World War II, the ROCAF participated in attacks on Japanese warships on the eastern front and along the Yangtze river and interdiction and close-air support during the Battle of Shanghai in 1937. Chinese sources estimated the Japanese could field approximately 600 aircraft (from a total of 1,530) against China's 230 combat-ready aircraft. As the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and

1650-583: Is that the F4F-4 is even more sluggish and slow than the F4F-3. It is also felt that it was a mistake to put 6 guns on the F4F-4 and thus to reduce the rounds per gun. Many of our fighters ran out of ammunition even before the Jap dive bombers arrived over our forces; these were experienced pilots, not novices. They were astounded by the Zero's superiority: In the Coral Sea, they made all their approaches from

1760-547: The schnellbomber strategy, but suffering heavy losses; "814" has thus become known as "Air Force Day". Chinese Boeing P-26/281 fighters engaged Japanese Mitsubishi A5M fighters in the world's first dogfight between all-metal monoplane fighters. A long-distance "bombing raid" over Japan on 19 May 1938 saw two Chinese Martin B-10 bombers led by Captain Xu Huansheng fly into Japan, albeit dropping only anti-war leaflets over

1870-683: The Battle of Wuhan in October 1938, most active air force units were withdrawn hinterland for the defense of Sichuan against the most brutal terror-bombing raids ever inflicted upon civilian populations up to that time; the massive Japanese carpet-bombing campaigns, against targets in Sichuan, under the codenames Operation 100 and 101 , were also fiercely contested solely by the Chinese Air Force units and anti-aircraft artillery units, sometimes with significant Japanese losses. But as China

1980-650: The China Burma India Theater by the " Flying Tigers " of the American Volunteer Group (AVG) against similarly maneuverable Japanese Army aircraft such as the Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate" and Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" . AVG pilots were trained by their commander Claire Chennault to exploit the advantages of their P-40 Warhawks , which were very sturdy, heavily armed, generally faster in a dive, and level flight at low altitude, with

2090-600: The Hawk II and Hawk III biplanes comprised the backbone of Chinese fighter aviation. These were soon followed by the Hawk 75 monoplane. The demonstration model Hawk 75N , with non-retractable landing gear was purchased in 1938 and became the personal aircraft of the American advisor to the Aviation Committee, Claire Chennault who oversaw training and lobbied for the procurement of American aircraft. The entry of

2200-860: The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service conducted mass-terror bombings against both civilian and military targets, the Chinese Air Force also planned raiding Japanese home island with the Martin B-10 bomber that was suited for the trans-oceanic raid. The initial lineup of Chinese frontline fighter aircraft included but not limited to the Curtiss Hawk II , Hawk III , Boeing P-26C/Model 281 , Fiat CR.32 among others. These engaged Japanese fighters, attack/bombers and reconnaissance aircraft in many major air battles beginning from 14 August 1937, when Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kisarazu Air Group raided Jianqiao Airbase with

2310-616: The Japanese , and by the beginning of 1942 the ROCAF was practically annihilated by Japanese aircraft, particularly due to the introduction of the A6M Zero-fighter . The ROCAF was eventually supplemented with the establishment of the American Volunteer Group (known as the " Flying Tigers ") with fast and heavily armed and armored Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, employing dissimilar hit and run tactics in defense of

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2420-709: The Kuomintang in 1923, when he already controlled a considerable numbers of troops in northern Guangxi and wiped out the local bandits, warlords, and remnant forces of the Old Guangxi clique in the north. By the spring of 1924, Huang Shaohong, Bai Chongxi, and Li Zongren, formed the New Guangxi clique and had created the well equipped Guangxi Pacification Army. Li Zongren was the Commander in Chief, Huang Shaohong

2530-600: The Lend-Lease Act on 11 March 1941, of which China was included as beneficiary on 15 March; the Republic of China government placed a request for 1,000 aircraft to fight-back against the Japanese. Through attrition and loss of their most experienced fighter pilots in the first half of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Republic of China Air Force suffered much irreversible losses in combat against

2640-738: The Polikarpov I-16s and I-153s that had been such a problem for the A5Ms when in service. In one encounter, 13 Zeros shot down 27 I-15s and I-16s in under three minutes without loss. After hearing of these reports, the Navy immediately ordered the A6M2 into production as the Type 0 Carrier Fighter, Model 11. Reports of the Zero's performance slowly filtered back to the US. They were met with scepticism by most US military officials, who thought it impossible for

2750-667: The Second Yue-Gui war , forcing Lu Rongting to step down in July 1921. By August, Chen had occupied Nanning and the rest of Guangxi. Chen Jiongming and the Cantonese forces occupied Guangxi until April 1922. Their occupation was largely nominal because armed bands of Guangxi loyalists began to gather under local commanders, calling themselves the Self-government Army . Sun Yat-sen and Chen Jiongming soon split over

2860-660: The Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1937 , including Soviet volunteer combat aviators . However, with the Fall of Nanking , the Fall of Wuhan , and the losses at the Battle of South Guangxi , the primary supply-line of China's "war of resistance" against the Imperial Japanese aggressions was dealt a further blow, not least of which the high-octane aviation fuel that was blocked-off from Chinese access, but still accessible to Imperial Japan. After suffering heavy losses in

2970-653: The 1/2 hour-long dogfight over Chongqing. By the time they were redeployed a year later, the Zeros had shot down 99 Chinese aircraft (up to 266 according to other sources). At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor , 521 Zeros were active in the Pacific, 328 in first-line units. The carrier-borne Model 21 was the type encountered by the Americans. Its tremendous range of over 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) allowed it to range farther from its carrier than expected, appearing over distant battlefronts and giving Allied commanders

3080-532: The 13 batches). Also included in the 13-batch purchase were 5 UT-1 trainers. However, of the 250–300 combat aircraft supplied annually, only a few dozen would survive through the end of the year. While the USSR provided most of the military aircraft to Chiang Kai-shek in the late 1930s, many early Chinese aircraft were supplied by the American Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company . In 1937

3190-412: The A6M during the Second Sino-Japanese War . Inevitably some aircraft were lost, with at least two falling more-or-less intact into Chinese hands. The first known example, an A6M2 (the 12th of the 15 pre-production aircraft, Serial V-110), fell near Fainan Island. On 18 September 1940 a team, including Western volunteers assisting the Chinese, examined the wreck. It was largely intact, and a detailed report

3300-516: The A6M's levels of maneuverability and consistently exceeding its firepower, armor, and speed, the A6M had largely become outdated as a fighter aircraft. However, as design delays and production difficulties hampered the introduction of newer Japanese aircraft models, the Zero continued to serve in a front-line role until the end of the war in the Pacific . During the final phases, it was also adapted for use in kamikaze operations. Japan produced more Zeros than any other model of combat aircraft during

3410-613: The Allied Technical Air Intelligence Unit at Eagle Farm Airport in Australia), who wanted quick, distinctive, easy-to-remember names. The Allied code for Japanese aircraft was introduced in 1942, and McCoy chose "Zeke" for the "Zero". Later, two variants of the fighter received their own code names. The Nakajima A6M2-N floatplane version of the Zero was called "Rufe", and the A6M3-32 variant

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3520-533: The American method that built them separately and joined the two parts together. The Japanese method was much slower but resulted in a very strong structure and improved close maneuverability. American test pilots found that the Zero's controls were "very light" at 320 km/h (200 mph) but stiffened at speeds above 348 km/h (216 mph) to safeguard against wing failure. The Zero could not keep up with Allied aircraft in high-speed maneuvers, and its low " never exceed speed " (V NE ) made it vulnerable in

3630-595: The Battle of Midway Allied pilots expressed a high level of dissatisfaction with the F4F Wildcat . Captain Elliott Buckmaster , commanding officer of USS  Yorktown notes: The fighter pilots are very disappointed with the performance and length of sustained fire power of the F4F-4 airplanes. The Zero fighters could easily outmaneuver and out-climb the F4F-3, and the consensus of fighter pilot opinion

3740-655: The Burmese border on the eastern bank of the Ruiluqiang River in Yunnan Province, at that time seemed protected from Japanese attacks, but technical difficulties plagued the actual assembly of the Hawk 75 in that location. Although the Japanese had not bombed the factory, only eight machines were assembled by October 1940. The fate of the remaining kits is unknown. Following the failure of Hawk 75 production,

3850-741: The CAMCO factory planned to organize assembly of the export version of the Curtiss-Wright CW-21 "Demon" interceptor. Three aircraft and 32 sets of components were ordered from the US. The factory at Loiwing worked until April 1942 when, due to Japanese attacks, it had to be evacuated to Kunming and its American personnel set up shop in India. Japanese advances in Burma in late-1942 forced the 1st Air Force Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (1st AFAMF) to move hinterland to Guiyang, Guizhou province, where

3960-643: The China theatre. By this time the Chinese Air Force was mostly equipped with current operational aircraft types and was superior in all respects to the opposing Japanese air forces which remained. From 1937 to the beginning of 1941, the Soviet Union served as the primary supplier to the ROCAF, and from October 1937 to January 1941, a total of 848 aircraft in 13 batches were ordered by the Chinese government and were supplied on credit, worth roughly 200 million dollars. In addition, there were 37 aircraft transferred to Chinese when Soviet force withdrew from China after

4070-455: The Chinese government was attempting an innovative and ambitious indigenously designed swept-forward gull-winged fighter plane called the XP-1, in hopes to reduce reliance on foreign sources. From 1943 to 1946 the CAMCO factory, which was dispersed in the ravines neighboring Kunming, assembled an experimental series of nine fighter monoplanes, probably from Hawk 75M, 75A-5, and CW-21 components. To

4180-543: The Clique in 1929. Following defeat in that civil war, Guangxi allied with Chen Jitang after he became chairman of the government of Guangdong in 1931, and turned against Chiang Kai-shek. Another civil war would have broken out if there had been no September 18 Incident , which prompted all sides to unite against the Empire of Japan . As a result, from 1930 to 1936, the Clique organized the reconstruction of Guangxi, which became

4290-523: The Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying! I thought this very odd—it had never happened before—and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been

4400-514: The Imperial Navy, and "M" indicated Mitsubishi as the manufacturer. The official Allied code name was "Zeke", in keeping with the practice of giving male names to Japanese fighters, female names to bombers , bird names to gliders , and tree names to trainers . "Zeke" was part of the first batch of "hillbilly" code names assigned by Captain Frank T. McCoy of Nashville, Tennessee (assigned to

4510-528: The Japanese cities of Nagasaki , Saga , Fukuoka , among others cities. It was a war of attrition for the Chinese pilots, as many of their most experienced ace fighter pilots, such as Lieutenant Liu Tsui-kang  [ zh ] , Colonel Kao Chih-hang , Yue Yiqin , among others, were lost; six months into the war, the Chinese Air Force inventory of frontline American Hawk IIs and IIIs and P-26Cs, and various others, were mostly superseded by faster and better armed Polikarpov I-15s and I-16s provided under

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4620-438: The Japanese to build such an aircraft. After the delivery of the 65th aircraft, a further change was worked into the production lines, which introduced folding wingtips to allow them to fit on aircraft carriers. The resulting Model 21 would become one of the most produced versions early in the war. A feature was the improved range with 520 L (140 US gal) wing tank and 320 L (85 US gal) drop tank. When

4730-620: The Model 32 was unsuited to that campaign and was used mainly for shorter range offensive missions and interception. This variant was flown by only a small number of units, and only 343 were built. One example survives today, and is on display at the Tachiarai Peace Memorial Museum in Tachiarai, Fukuoka . In order to correct the deficiencies of the Model 32, a new version with folding wingtips and redesigned wing

4840-465: The Model 52. Mitsubishi is unable to state with certainty that it ever used the designation "A6M4" or model numbers for it. However, "A6M4" does appear in a translation of a captured Japanese memo from a Naval Air Technical Arsenal, titled Quarterly Report on Research Experiments, dated 1 October 1942. It mentions a "cross-section of the A6M4 intercooler" then being designed. Some researchers believe "A6M4"

4950-894: The National Revolutionary Army on April 12, 1927 and of the labour unions in Shanghai. Li Zongren was the general of the Seventh Army in the Northern Expedition. Li went on to be the commanding general of the Seventh Army in the Northern Expedition and captured Wuhan in 1927. Li was then appointed commander of the Fourth Army Group, composed of the Guangxi Army and other provincial forces amounting to 16 corps and six independent divisions. In April 1928, Li Zongren, with Bai Chongxi, who

5060-454: The Sakae 21 engine, which used a two-speed supercharger for better altitude performance, and increased power to 831 kW (1,130 hp). A prototype Zero with the new engine was first flown on 15 July 1941. The new Sakae was slightly heavier and somewhat longer due to the larger supercharger, which moved the center of gravity too far forward on the existing airframe. To correct for this,

5170-408: The US for longer training and mastery of American aircraft. The first American P-43A fighters were received by the 4th Air Group (21st – 24th Squadrons) in March 1942. They retrained in Kunming, but for the new aircraft the pilots sequentially flew in small groups to India. On 24 April the deputy commander of the 24th Squadron, Wu Zhenhua, crashed on the flight to Kunming . On 12 May, Chen Lokun ,

5280-415: The USSR concluded a non-aggression pact with Germany , the Soviet Volunteer Group was withdrawn. By the end of 1941, the air force had 364 operational aircraft. Up to 100 of these were P-40Bs operated by the American Volunteer Group . U.S. replacement aircraft began to arrive in March 1942. They included A-29s , P-40s , P-43s , In 1944, the USAAF Fourteenth Air Force commenced joint operations in

5390-436: The United States into the war with Japan at the end of 1941 led to the receipt of Lend-Lease equipment from the United States, including aircraft. American Lend-Lease aviation equipment had already begun to arrive in China as early as the middle of 1941, though that includes the first shipments before January 1942 which arrived under the guise of purchases. Including previously purchased American aircraft, US soon replaced USSR as

5500-415: The Zero was one of the most modern carrier-based aircraft in the world at the time of its introduction. It had a fairly high-lift, low-speed wing with very low wing loading . Combined with its light weight, this resulted in a very low stalling speed of well below 60 kn (110 km/h; 69 mph). This was the main reason for its phenomenal maneuverability, allowing it to out-turn any Allied fighter of

5610-423: The acrobatic Japs", as Lieutenant General Claire Lee Chennault noted. Although not as fast as the British fighter, the Zero could out-turn the Spitfire with ease, sustain a climb at a very steep angle, and stay in the air for three times as long. Allied pilots soon developed tactics to cope with the Zero. Because of its extreme agility, engaging a Zero in a traditional turning dogfight was likely to be fatal. It

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5720-414: The area. However, because the clique had to constantly be mobilized for war, first against the Guangdong warlords, then later against the Japanese, the tax burden which they levied was far heavier than that of Lu Rongting. The New Guangxi Clique also taxed the opium trade. As was later true for Chiang Kai-shek's government, the taxes were collected via opium suppression offices, ostensibly created to destroy

5830-424: The army, the fact that it would alter the existing territorial influences among the Cliques in the party quickly aggravated the relationships between the central government and the regional powers. Li Zongren, Bai Chongxi and Huang Shaohong of the Guangxi Clique were the first to break off relations with Chiang in March 1929, which started the confrontation that lead to the Central Plains War . Chiang Kai-shek defeated

5940-454: The arsenal did use the designation "A6M4". The prototype engines nevertheless provided useful experience for future engine designs. Sometimes considered as the most effective variant, the Model 52 was developed to again shorten the wings to increase speed and dispense with the folding wing mechanism. In addition, ailerons, aileron trim tab and flaps were revised. Produced first by Mitsubishi, most Model 52s were made by Nakajima. The prototype

6050-464: The cadets completing primary training in India were sent to America to train further. By that time the number of cadets dispatched had reached 1220, of whom 384 managed to return to China and participate in combat. In all, from 1942 to 1945 420 training aircraft were sent from the US to China through India, including 20 AT-6 , 8 AT-7 , 15 AT-17 , 150 PT-17 , 127 PT-19 , 70 PT-22 , and 30 BT-13 , and also 10 Beechcraft D-17 medical aircraft. While

6160-431: The campaign, Li Zongren's battalion was reduced to about one thousand men and "sank into the grasses." But Li, intending to become more than a bandit, began building a personal military machine of professional units of soldiers. These were to be the equal of any force in China and more than a match for any number of bandits or Zhuang irregulars that Lu Rongting drew on in his war to re-establish his power in Guangxi. Li joined

6270-442: The chief naval test pilot of the Royal Navy , recalled being impressed by the Zero during tests of captured aircraft. "I don't think I have ever flown a fighter that could match the rate of turn of the Zero. The Zero had ruled the roost totally and was the finest fighter in the world until mid-1943." The first two A6M1 prototypes were completed in March 1939, powered by the 580 kW (780 hp) Mitsubishi Zuisei 13 engine with

6380-485: The civil governor of Guangxi from 1924 to 1929, and Guangxi remained under Li Zongren's influence until 1949. The New Guangxi clique made attempts at modernising between 1926 and 1927, when the Guangxi clique controlled Guangxi and much of Guangdong, Hunan, and Hubei. The New Guangxi clique was much more active in modernizing than Lu Rongting had been. They founded the University of Guangxi in Nanning, built over five thousand kilometers of roads and extended electrification of

6490-470: The continuation of the Northern Expedition. Chen, however, aspired merely to be the warlord of Guangdong and after the Zhili clique in Beijing recognized his power in the south, he abandoned Sun Yat-sen. By May 1922 the Cantonese forces had evacuated Guangxi leaving a power vacuum. Lu Rongting could construct a political and military machine from the forces that composed the Self-government Armies, by calling on friendship, family, and Zhuang ethnicity, but

6600-421: The deputy Commander, and Bai Chongxi the Chief-of-Staff. By August they had defeated and driven the former ruler Lu Rongting and other contenders out of the province. Li Zongren was military governor of Guangxi from 1924–25, and from 1925 to 1949. The coalition's efforts brought Guangxi Province under the jurisdiction of the Republic of China . Li Zongren was military governor of Guangxi from 1924–25, Huang became

6710-427: The engine mountings were cut back by 185 mm (7.3 in) to move the engine toward the cockpit. This had the side effect of reducing the size of the main fuselage fuel tank (located between the engine and the cockpit) from 518 L (137 US gal) to 470 L (120 US gal). The cowling was redesigned to enlarge the cowl flaps, revise the oil cooler air intake, and move the carburetor air intake to

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6820-530: The experiences of the A5M in China, the IJN sent out updated requirements in October, calling for a speed of 270 kn (310 mph; 500 km/h) at 4,000 m (13,000 ft) and a climb to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in 9.5 minutes. With drop tanks , the IJN wanted an endurance of two hours at normal power, or six to eight hours at economical cruising speed. Armament was to consist of two 20 mm cannons , two 7.7 mm (.303 in) machine guns and two 60 kg (130 lb) bombs . A complete radio set

6930-444: The flight commander of the 24th Squadron was killed during a training flight, crashing into a tree during landing. In July for unclear reasons the P-43 of the 4th Air Group commander, Zheng Shaoyu , caught fire in the air and the pilot was killed. On 3 August 1942 during a training flight the deputy group commander Chen Sheng crashed. A similar series of crashes accompanied the mastery by the Chinese of almost every new machine. (It

7040-497: The form of the Kinsei , so they were somewhat reluctant to use the Sakae. Nevertheless, when the first A6M2 was completed in January 1940, the Sakae's extra power pushed the performance of the Zero well past the original specifications. The new version was so promising that the Navy had 15 built and shipped to China before they had completed testing. They arrived in Manchuria in July 1940, and first saw combat over Chongqing in August. There they proved to be completely untouchable by

7150-426: The founding of the Republic, Guangxi served as the base for one of the Old Guangxi clique , one of the most powerful warlord cliques of China. In the early 1920s, the Guangdong–Guangxi War saw the pro- Kuomintang New Guangxi clique replace the Old clique. In 1920, Chen Jiongming drove Lu Rongting and the Old Guangxi clique out of Guangdong in the First Yue-Gui War . In 1921, Chen pushed into Guangxi, starting

7260-516: The impression that there were several times as many Zeros as actually existed. The Zero quickly gained a fearsome reputation. Thanks to a combination of unsurpassed maneuverability—compared to contemporary Axis fighters—and excellent firepower, it easily disposed of Allied aircraft sent against it in the Pacific in 1941. It proved a difficult opponent even for the Supermarine Spitfire . "The RAF pilots were trained in methods that were excellent against German and Italian equipment but suicide against

7370-470: The introduction of Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" , the most advanced fighter aircraft of the time, the Imperial Japanese gained practically complete air-supremacy by 1941, giving the Japanese military high-command full confidence in proceeding with the implementation of Operation Z (the planning and rehearsals for the attack on Pearl Harbor). With the Japanese invasion of French Indochina , the United States enacted an oil and steel embargo against Japan and also

7480-409: The lack of such a leader led to a rapid collapse into localism, which occurred as the Guangdong forces withdrew. There was intense fighting to re-occupy territory or to attempt to strip the retreating forces of their supplies and munitions. With the support of Wu Peifu and the Zhili clique Lu Rongting slipped back into Guangxi in 1923 and began to try to rebuild his coalition. He soon had control over

7590-456: The largest supplier for the Chinese Nationalist air force during the war (Including the Second Sino-Japanese War that actually broke out in 1931 when Japan invaded Manchuria). Retraining on American aircraft occurred for the most part in India. (Karachi and other cities), where Chinese pilots were sent both as groups and as entire units. As early as the end of 1941 Chinese pilots, mainly recently graduated from flight schools, began to be sent to

7700-413: The last digit of the Imperial year 2600 (1940) when it entered service. In Japan, it was unofficially referred to as both Rei-sen and Zero-sen ; Japanese pilots most commonly called it Zero-sen, where sen is the first syllable of sentōki, Japanese for "fighter plane". In the official designation "A6M", the "A" signified a carrier-based fighter, "6" meant that it was the sixth such model built for

7810-421: The lines switched to updated models, 740 Model 21s had been completed by Mitsubishi, and another 800 by Nakajima. Two other versions of the Model 21 were built in small numbers, the Nakajima-built A6M2-N "Rufe" floatplane (based on the Model 11 with a slightly modified tail), and the A6M2-K two-seat trainer of which a total of 508 were built by Hitachi and the Sasebo Naval Air Arsenal. In 1941, Nakajima introduced

7920-520: The modified Hawk 75M with retractable landing gear was created specially for China, it was not widely used in the war against the Japanese. Thirty aircraft, and 82 kits for assembly were delivered in the summer and autumn of 1938. It was planned to assemble the Hawk in a factory operated by the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company , which had been evacuated from Hankou to Loiwing . The latter location, not far from

8030-571: The new design type was accepted formally by the Navy, the A6M3 Model 22 already stood ready for service in December 1942. Approximately 560 aircraft of the new type had been produced in the meantime by Mitsubishi Jukogyo K.K. According to a theory, the very late production Model 22 might have had wings similar to the shortened, rounded-tip wing of the Model 52. One plane of such arrangement was photographed at Lakunai Airfield ("Rabaul East") in

8140-405: The new style of exhaust commenced with number 3904. Whether this is correct, indicates retrofitting intentions, refers to the prototype but not to all subsequent planes, or is in error, is unclear.) From production number 4274, the wing fuel tanks received carbon dioxide fire extinguishers . From number 4354, the radio became the Model 3, aerial Mark 1, and at that point it is said the antenna mast

8250-495: The only positive thing that could be said of the Zero at this stage of the war was that, in the hands of a skillful pilot, it could maneuver as well as most of its opponents. Nonetheless, in competent hands, the Zero could still be deadly. Because of shortages of high-powered aviation engines and problems with planned successor models, namely the superior Mitsubishi A7M2 Reppū , the Zero remained in production until 1945, with over 10,000 of all variants produced. The Japanese deployed

8360-596: The opium trade. Later he expanded his control to Wuzhou, thus controlling the routes through which opium both entered and left Guangxi. With his opium revenue Bai was able to build a well-equipped and trained force. During the Yue-Gui Wars, Li Zongren had accompanied Lin Hu and Lu Rongting into Guangdong and led the rear guard when the Old Guangxi Clique forces retreated before Chen Jiongming's attack. During

8470-631: The primary wartime Allied supply-line into China known as " The Hump ", between Kunming in Yunnan province and British bases in India , while the remains of the Chinese Air Force modernized and rebuilt its strength each year following Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor , with new commitment and support from the United States . The ROC Air Force was reconstituted into seven Groups, one separate Squadron and four Volunteer Groups . In 1939, after

8580-543: The quality of the aircraft, less so by the performance—although this was later put down to using 85 octane fuel rather than the 100 octane required by the Sakae engine. The American military discovered many of the A6M's unique attributes when they recovered a largely intact specimen of an A6M2, the Akutan Zero , on Akutan Island in the Aleutians . During an air raid over Dutch Harbor on 4 June 1942, one A6M fighter

8690-596: The rear or high side and did relatively little damage because of our armor. It also is desired to call attention to the fact that there was an absence of the fancy stunting during pull outs or approaches for attacks. In this battle, the Japs dove in, made the attack and then immediately pulled out, taking advantage of their superior climb and maneuverability. In attacking fighters, the Zeros usually attacked from above rear at high speed and recovered by climbing vertically until they lost some speed and then pulled on through to complete

8800-522: The reduced drag allowed the diving speed to be increased to 670 km/h (415 mph). On the downside, turning and range, which were the strengths of the Model 21, suffered due to smaller ailerons, decreased lift and greater fuel consumption. The shorter range proved a significant limitation during the Solomons Campaign, during which Zeros based at Rabaul had to travel nearly to their maximum range to reach Guadalcanal and return. Consequently,

8910-469: The requirements could be met, but only if the aircraft were made as light as possible. Every possible weight-saving measure was incorporated into the design. Most of the aircraft was built of a new top-secret aluminium alloy developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries in 1936. Called " extra super duralumin ", it was lighter, stronger and more ductile than other alloys used at the time but was prone to corrosive attack, which made it brittle. This detrimental effect

9020-473: The second half of 1943, and has been published widely in a number of Japanese books. While the engine cowling is the same of previous Model 32 and 22, the theory proposes that the plane is an early production Model 52. The Model 32, 22, 22 Kō, 52, 52 Kō and 52 Otsu were all powered by the Nakajima Sakae Mod. 21 engine. That engine kept its designation in spite of changes in the exhaust system for

9130-408: The signing of Soviet–German Non-Aggression Pact . These aircraft included 563 fighters, including 252 I-152 , 75 I-153 , 132 I-16 Type 5 , 75 I-16 Type 10 , 10 I-16 Type 17 and rest being I-15 bis , which was not part of the purchase in the 13 batches. Also included were 322 bombers, including 179 SB-2M-100A , 100 SB-2M-103 24 DB-3 , 6 TB-3 and 13 SB that were not part of the purchase in

9240-570: The south with its important pool of Zhuang manpower, but the situation had changed and his political organization could not be rebuilt. Among the younger men who had been trained in military schools after the 1911 revolution there was a new appreciation for modern tactics, weapons, and political means. In the confused power struggles following the Yue-Gui Wars , these local military men began to carve out territory in Guangxi and dominate it. In

9350-570: The southwest there were opium trails from Yunnan and Guizhou that ran through Baise and then down the river to Nanning . From these opium usually went out through Wuzhou , where the trade was financed. During the Yue-Gui wars, Huang Shaohong, then the commander of the Model Battalion of the 1st Guangxi Division, and Bai Chongxi his former deputy, attempted to stay neutral and relocated to Baise. Huang eventually got control of Baise, and

9460-400: The standard United States Navy fighter of the time. The A6M's airframe was "built like a fine watch"; the Zero was constructed with flush rivets , and even the guns were flush with the wings. The instrument panel was a "marvel of simplicity… with no superfluities to distract [the pilot]". What most impressed the experts was that the Zero's fuselage and wings were constructed in one piece, unlike

9570-520: The time. Early models were fitted with servo tabs on the ailerons after pilots complained that control forces became too heavy at speeds above 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph). They were discontinued on later models after it was found that the lightened control forces were causing pilots to overstress the wings during vigorous maneuvers. The A6M is usually known as the "Zero" from its Japanese Navy aircraft_type designation , Type 0 carrier fighter ( Rei shiki Kanjō sentōki , 零式艦上戦闘機 ), taken from

9680-435: The toughness of early Grumman aircraft was a factor in preventing the Zero from attaining total domination: I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7 mm machine guns. I turned the 20mm cannon switch to the 'off' position, and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into

9790-617: The trade. In 1932 opium income amounted to fifty million dollars, the largest source of income in the provincial budget. During the Northern Expedition , Bai Chongxi was the Chief of Staff of the National Revolutionary Army and led the Eastern Route Army which conquered Hangzhou and Shanghai in 1927. As garrison commander of Shanghai, Bai also took part in the purge of Communists in

9900-517: The upper half of the cowling. The wings were redesigned to reduce span, eliminate the folding tips, and square off the wingtips. The inboard edge of the aileron was moved outboard by one rib, and the wing fuel tanks were enlarged accordingly to 420 L (110 US gal). The two 20 mm wing cannon were upgraded from the Type 99 Mark 1 to the Mark 2, which required a bulge in the sheet metal of

10010-555: The war. The Mitsubishi A5M fighter was just entering service in early 1937, when the Imperial Japanese Navy started looking for its eventual replacement. On 5 October 1937, it issued "Planning Requirements for the Prototype 12-shi Carrier-based Fighter", sending them to Nakajima and Mitsubishi. Both firms started preliminary design work while awaiting more definitive requirements a few months later. Based on

10120-483: The wing below each cannon. The wings also included larger ammunition boxes and thus allowing 100 rounds per cannon. The Sakae 21 engine and other changes increased maximum speed by only 11 km/h (6.8 mph) compared to the Model 21, but sacrificed nearly 1,000 km (620 miles) of range. Nevertheless, the Navy accepted the type and it entered production in April 1942. The shorter wingspan led to better roll, and

10230-461: Was " Zeke ", although the name "Zero" was used colloquially as well. The Zero is considered to have been the most capable carrier-based fighter in the world when it was introduced early in World War II , combining excellent maneuverability and very long range. The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service also frequently used it as a land-based fighter. In early combat operations, the Zero gained

10340-518: Was applied to one or two prototype planes fitted with an experimental turbo-supercharged Sakae engine designed for high altitude. Mitsubishi's involvement in the project was probably quite limited or nil; the unmodified Sakae engine was made by Nakajima. The design and testing of the turbo-supercharger was the responsibility of the First Naval Air [Technical] Arsenal ( 第一海軍航空廠 , Dai Ichi Kaigun Kōkūshō ) at Yokosuka. At least one photo of

10450-505: Was better to swoop down from above in a high-speed pass, fire a quick burst, then climb quickly back up to altitude. A short burst of fire from heavy machine guns or cannon was often enough to bring down the fragile Zero. These tactics were regularly employed by Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters during Guadalcanal defense through high-altitude ambush, which was possible with an early warning system consisting of coastwatchers and radar . Such "boom-and-zoom" tactics were also successfully used in

10560-433: Was compiled and sent to the U.S. The second, an A6M2-21 (Serial V-173), made a forced landing near Tietsan airfield 17 February 1941. The pilot was shot before he could destroy his plane, the fuel system fixed, and it was taken into Chinese service. The plane was extensively flown and studied by a team which included Gerhard Neumann , and a detailed and illustrated report was sent to Washington. Overall they were impressed with

10670-506: Was contemplated by Hitachi, but not undertaken. The A6M6 was developed to use the Sakae 31a engine, featuring water-methanol engine boost and self-sealing wing tanks. During preliminary testing, its performance was considered unsatisfactory due to the additional engine power failing to materialize and the unreliability of the fuel injection system. Testing continued on the A6M6 but the end of war stopped further development. Only one prototype

10780-799: Was countered with a zinc chromate anti-corrosion coating applied after fabrication. No armour protection was provided for the pilot, engine or other critical points of the aircraft, and self-sealing fuel tanks , which were becoming common among other combatants, were not used. This made the Zero lighter, more maneuverable, and one of the longest-ranged single-engine fighters of World War II, which made it capable of searching out an enemy hundreds of kilometres away, bringing it to battle, then returning to its base or aircraft carrier. However, that tradeoff in weight and construction also made it prone to catching fire and exploding when struck by enemy fire. With its low-wing cantilever monoplane layout, retractable wide-set conventional landing gear , and enclosed cockpit,

10890-474: Was credited with many victories over the northern warlords, led the Fourth Army group to advance on Beijing, capturing Handan , Baoding , and Shijiazhuang , by June 1. Zhang Zuolin withdrew from Beijing on June 3, and Li's army seized Beijing. Bai commanded the forward units which first entered Beijing and Tianjin . At the end of the Northern Expedition, Chiang Kai-shek began to agitate to reorganize

11000-673: Was first used to good effect during the Battle of Midway and later over the Solomon Islands . Many highly experienced Japanese aviators were lost in combat, resulting in a progressive decline in pilot quality, which became a significant factor in Allied successes. Unexpected heavy losses of pilots at the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway dealt the Japanese carrier air force a blow from which it never fully recovered. Throughout

11110-471: Was found over a month later by an American salvage team and was shipped to Naval Air Station North Island , where testing flights of the repaired A6M revealed both strengths and deficiencies in design and performance. The experts who evaluated the captured Zero found that the plane weighed about 2,360 kg (5,200 lb) fully loaded, some 1,260 kg (2,780 lb) lighter than the F4F Wildcat,

11220-484: Was hit by ground-based anti-aircraft fire. Losing oil, Flight Petty Officer Tadayoshi Koga attempted an emergency landing on Akutan Island about 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Dutch Harbor, but his Zero flipped over on soft ground in a sudden crash-landing. Koga died instantly of head injuries (his neck was broken by the tremendous impact), but his wingmen hoped he had survived and so went against Japanese doctrine to destroy disabled Zeros. The relatively undamaged fighter

11330-519: Was initially called "Hap". General "Hap" Arnold , commander of the United States Army Air Forces , objected to that name, however, so it was changed to "Hamp". The first Zeros (pre-series of 15 A6M2) went into operation with the 12th Rengo Kōkūtai in July 1940. On 13 September 1940, the Zeros scored their first air-to-air victories when 13 A6M2s led by Lieutenant Saburo Shindo, escorting 27 G3M "Nell" medium-heavy bombers on

11440-410: Was introduced. The fuel tanks were moved to the outer wings, fuel lines for a 330 L (87 US gal) drop tank were installed under each wing and the internal fuel capacity was increased to 570 L (150 US gal). More importantly, it regained its capabilities for long operating ranges, similar to the previous A6M2 Model 21, which was vastly shortened by the Model 32. However, before

11550-642: Was made in June 1943 by modifying an A6M3 and was first flown in August 1943. The first Model 52 is said in the handling manual to have production number 3904, which apparently refers to the prototype. Research by Mr. Bunzo Komine published by Mr. Kenji Miyazaki states that aircraft 3904 through 4103 had the same exhaust system and cowl flaps as on the Model 22. This is partially corroborated by two wrecks researched by Mr. Stan Gajda and Mr. L. G. Halls, production number 4007 and 4043, respectively. (The upper cowling

11660-482: Was not an aviation-industrial power at the time, losses continued to mount, while the Japanese forces enjoyed a highly developed aviation industry that saw constantly improving cutting-edge technological advancements giving Japanese aircraft distinct performance advantages in speed, agility, altitude/climbing rate and firepower that greatly placed the increasingly underpowered and underarmed Chinese fighter aircraft hampered with low-grade fuel at tremendous disadvantage. With

11770-687: Was operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) from 1940 to 1945. The A6M was designated as the Mitsubishi Navy Type 0 carrier fighter ( 零式艦上戦闘機 , rei-shiki-kanjō-sentōki ) , or the Mitsubishi A6M Rei-sen. The A6M was usually referred to by its pilots as the Reisen ( 零戦 , zero fighter), "0" being the last digit of the imperial year 2600 (1940) when it entered service with the IJN. The official Allied reporting name

11880-484: Was shortened slightly. Through production number 4550, the lowest exhaust stacks were approximately the same length as those immediately above them. This caused hot exhaust to burn the forward edge of the landing gear doors and heat the tires. Therefore, from number 4551 Mitsubishi began to install shorter bottom stacks. Nakajima manufactured the Model 52 at its Koizumi plant in Gunma Prefecture . The A6M5 had

11990-439: Was slightly redesigned from that of the Model 22. ) An early production A6M5 Zero with non-separated exhaust, with an A6M3 Model 22 in the background. A new exhaust system provided an increment of thrust by aiming the stacks aft and distributing them around the forward fuselage. The new exhaust system required "notched" cowl flaps and heat shields just aft of the stacks. (Note, however, that the handling manual translation states that

12100-539: Was to be mounted in all aircraft, along with a radio direction finder for long-range navigation. The maneuverability was to be at least equal to that of the A5M, while the wingspan had to be less than 12 m (39 ft) to allow for use on aircraft carriers. Nakajima's team considered the new requirements unachievable and pulled out of the competition in January. Mitsubishi's chief designer, Jiro Horikoshi , thought that

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