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166-625: The most populous indigenous groups were the Aonikenk , Kolla , Qom , Wichí , Diaguita , Mocoví , Huarpe peoples , Mapuche and Guarani . Many Argentines also identify as having at least one indigenous ancestor; a genetic study conducted by the University of Buenos Aires in 2011 showed that more than 56% of the 320 Argentines sampled were shown to have at least one indigenous ancestor in one parental lineage and around 11% had indigenous ancestors in both parental lineages. Jujuy Province , in

332-514: A white paper , otherwise known as the Blue Book accusing Perón, President Farrell and others of Fascist ties. Fluent in Spanish, Braden addressed Democratic Union rallies in person, but his move backfired when Perón summarized the election as a choice between "Perón or Braden". He also rallied further support by responding to the "Blue Book" with his own "Blue and White Book", which was a play on

498-406: A 22 km (14 mi) freeway into Buenos Aires. This freeway was followed by one between Rosario and Santa Fe . Perón had mixed success in expanding the country's inadequate electric grid, which grew by only one fourth during his tenure. Argentina's installed hydroelectric capacity, however, leapt from 45 to 350 MW during his first term (to about a fifth of the total public grid). He promoted

664-544: A Spanish economist who had years earlier advised that nation's ill-fated regime of Miguel Primo de Rivera . Intervention of their behalf by Perón's appointees encouraged the CGT to call strikes in the face of employers reluctant to grant benefits or honor new labour legislation. Strike activity (with 500,000 working days lost in 1945) leapt to 2 million in 1946 and to over 3 million in 1947, helping wrest needed labour reforms, though permanently aligning large employers against

830-554: A broad constitutional reform in September. The elected convention (whose opposition members soon resigned) approved the wholesale replacement of the 1853 Constitution of Argentina with a new magna carta in March, explicitly guaranteeing social reforms; but also allowing the mass nationalization of natural resources and public services, as well as the re-election of the president. Emphasizing an economic policy centerpiece dating from

996-561: A certain El Lal was sent. Also, within Tehuelche myth, through the god Temauckel, Erral created humans and taught them how to use bows and arrows. The Tehuelche culture embraced the presence of evil spirits called guarichos. Gualicho . The ancestors of the Tehuelche are probably responsible for the creation of the rock art of Cueva de las Manos , created from about 13,000 to 9,000 years ago up until around 700 A.D. Six thousand years ago

1162-424: A chief known as Pitioche and his wife and child were captured. Reports of these shocking facts form part of Christian Báez and Peter Mason's book Zoológicos humanos ( Human Zoos ). Anthropologist Robert Lehmann-Nitsche was also criticized for having studied members of the Tehuelche people who had been abducted and were exhibited in circuses. By decree of President José Evaristo Uriburu on 11 January 1898,

1328-466: A closer relationship with the languages from Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (southern Chonan) and a more distant relationship with the language of the Gününa küne indigenous group (northern Chonan). Escalada considered the idea that the entire Tehuelche complex had a common linguistic core, called Ken ('people'). Until the 19th century the following languages were recognized: In central Patagonia there

1494-526: A definitive interpretation of the ethnological panorama of Patagonia and the adjacent Northern area ) (1965); Un nuevo panorama etnológico del area pan-pampeana y patagónica adyacente (A new ethnological panorama of the Pan-Pampas and adjacent Patagonian area) (1969); and Bosquejo de una etnología de la provincia de Río Negro (Outline of an ethnology of the Río Negro province) (1985), reaffirming

1660-467: A final nail into the coffin that bore Perón's ambitions to transform Argentina into an industrial power". The policy deprived Argentina of potential agricultural markets in Western Europe to the benefit of Canadian exporters , for instance. As relations with the U.S. deteriorated, Perón made efforts to mitigate the misunderstandings, which were made easier after President Harry Truman replaced

1826-430: A fourth during Perón's first two years, saw zero growth from 1948 to 1952. After 1952, however, wages began rising in real terms once more. The increasing frequency of strikes, increasingly directed against Perón as the economy slid into stagflation in late 1954, was dealt with through the expulsion of organizers from the CGT ranks. To consolidate his political grasp on the eve of colder economic winds, Perón called for

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1992-537: A giant thermometer hung from the Buenos Aires Obelisk to track the fundraising. The effort's success and relief for earthquake victims earned Perón widespread public approval. At this time, he met a minor radio matinee star, Eva Duarte . Following President Ramírez's January 1944 suspension of diplomatic relations with the Axis Powers (against whom the new junta would declare war in March 1945),

2158-707: A great many subdivisions, as the Leuvuches, or People of the River, and Calille-Het, or People of the Mountains; amongst whom are the Chulilau-cunnees, Sehuau-cunnees, and Yacana-cunnees. All these, except those of the River, are called by the Moluches, Vucha-Huilliches. In 1936 Milcíades Vignati published Las culturas indígenas de la Pampa y Las culturas indígenas de la Patagonia (The Indigenous Cultures of

2324-603: A little-known rank-and-filer who was close to the first lady. The meat-packers' union leader, Cipriano Reyes  [ es ] , turned against Perón when he replaced the Labour Party with the Peronist Party in 1947. Organizing a strike in protest, Reyes was arrested on the charge of plotting against the lives of the president and first lady; according to Time , Reyes was contacted by two police officers posing as disloyal airforce lieutenants who convinced him of

2490-584: A lump sum at the end of the year amounting to one-twelfth of the annual wage) and the National Institute of Compensation, which implemented a minimum wage and collected data on living standards, prices, and wages. Leveraging his authority on behalf of striking abattoir workers and the right to unionise, Perón became increasingly thought of as presidential material. On 18 September 1945, he delivered an address billed as "from work to home and from home to work". The speech, prefaced by an excoriation of

2656-485: A main stockholder in its sugar industry. As a colonel, Perón took a significant part in the military coup by the GOU ( United Officers' Group , a secret society) against the conservative civilian government of Castillo. At first an assistant to Secretary of War General Edelmiro Farrell , under the administration of General Pedro Ramírez , he later became the head of the then-insignificant Department of Labour. Perón's work in

2822-645: A morphosyntactic projection in Clarificación lingüística de las relaciones interculturales e interétnicas en la región pampeano-patagónica ( Linguistic Clarification of Intercultural and Inter-ethnic Relations in the Pampas-Patagonian Region ), and in 2005 he developed a phonological description in Voces en el viento ( Voices in the Wind ). Puelche is a dead language . Casamiquela released

2988-544: A mother language called "Ken". He grouped them together geographically into "dry land" and "islanders", denying the existence of a separate "Pampa" group. The names used by Escalada, which he obtained from Mapuche-speaking informants, were: Argentine historian and paleontologist Rodolfo Casamiquela reviewed Escalada's classifications in his books Rectificaciones y ratificaciones hacia una interpretación definitiva del panorama etnológico de la Patagonia y área septentrional adyacente ( Rectifications and ratifications towards

3154-472: A mythical tribe of Patagonian giants . Prior to meeting the Tehuelche groups in person, the explorers had been amazed by the size of their footprints. Enlarged by the animal furs they used as footwear, their feet appeared much larger than those of the Europeans at the time. During the 16th century, the average male height of Europeans at around 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) would have been shorter than

3320-410: A principle part of the Tehuelche diet, leaving guanacos in second place. The Selk'nam from Tierra del Fuego did not develop a comparable dependency on horses. Welsh settlers arrived in the Tehuelche lands of the lower Chubut Valley in 1865. Relations were mostly amicable and have been described as mutual feelings of "trust and admiration". Paternalistic attitudes toward the Tehuelche were common among

3486-415: A recently aired History Channel documentary , the secrecy, Nazi connections, declassified US intelligence documents, and military infrastructure located around the remote facility all argue for the more likely objective of atomic bomb development. The Argentine navy actually bombed multiple buildings in 1955 – an unusual method of decommissioning a legitimate research facility. Eva Perón was instrumental as

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3652-618: A scientific team to investigate Richter's activities. Reports by José Antonio Balseiro and Mario Báncora revealed that the project was a fraud. After that, the Huemul Project was transferred to the Centro Atómico Bariloche (CAB) of the new National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA) and to the physics institute of the Universidad Nacional de Cuyo , later named Instituto Balseiro (IB). According to

3818-736: A single purchaser for the nation's mostly export-oriented grains and oilseeds, the Institute for the Promotion of Trade ( IAPI ). The IAPI wrested control of Argentina's famed grain export sector from entrenched conglomerates such as Bunge y Born ; but when commodity prices fell after 1948, it began shortchanging growers. IAPI profits were used to fund welfare projects, while internal demand was encouraged by large wage increases given to workers; average real wages rose by about 35% from 1945 to 1949, while during that same period, labour's share of national income rose from 40% to 49%. Access to health care

3984-484: A state structure, the Tehuelche did not possess an organized religious system (liturgy and vertical structure). However, like all the Pampas and Patagonian peoples, they had a corpus of beliefs based on their own myths and rituals, which were narrated and updated by the shamans who also practiced medicine with the help of the spirits invoked in themselves. The Tehuelche people believed in diverse Earth spirits, along with

4150-778: A staunch anti-communist and champion of containment , fed U.S. suspicions that Argentine goals for economic sovereignty and neutrality were Perón's disguise for a resurgence of communism in the Americas. The U.S. Congress took a dislike to Perón and his government. In 1948 they excluded Argentine exports from the Marshall Plan , the landmark Truman administration effort to combat communism and help rebuild war-torn European nations by offering U.S. aid. This contributed to Argentine financial crises after 1948 and, according to Perón biographer Joseph Page, "the Marshall Plan drove

4316-680: A successful coup deposed him . During the following period of two military dictatorships , interrupted by two civilian governments, the Peronist party was outlawed and Perón was exiled. Over the years he lived in Paraguay , Venezuela , Panama , and Spain . When the Peronist Héctor José Cámpora was elected president in 1973, Perón returned to Argentina amidst the Ezeiza massacre and was soon after elected president for

4482-541: A supreme deity who created the world but does not intervene in it. One of the cosmological versions of the creation myth is one in which the deity, known as Kóoch, brought order to the world's chaos, creating distinct elements. Similarly, the Selk'nam people from Tierra del Fuego in Argentina, narrated a similar myth where the world creator, a deity known as Kénos' (a variant of Kóoch through a common root). According to this,

4648-414: A symbol of hope to the common labourer during the first five-year plan . When she died in 1952, the year of the presidential elections, the people felt they had lost an ally. Coming from humble origins, she was loathed by the elite but adored by the poor for her work with the sick, elderly, and orphans. It was due to her behind-the-scenes work that women's suffrage was granted in 1947 and a feminist wing of

4814-510: A third time (12 October 1973 – 1 July 1974). During this term, left- and right-wing Peronists were permanently divided and violence between them erupted, which Perón was unable to resolve. His minister José López Rega formed the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance , believed to have committed at least hundreds of extrajudicial killings and kidnappings. Perón's third wife, María Estela Martínez , known as Isabel Perón,

4980-461: A treaty negotiated by Central Bank President Miguel Miranda; but after a year, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee suspended the provision. Perón accepted the transfer of over 24,000 km (15,000 mi) of British-owned railways (over half the total in Argentina) in exchange for the debt in March 1948. Due to political disputes between Perón and the U.S. government (as well as to pressure by

5146-468: A viable alternative to liberal democracy (which he viewed as a veiled plutocracy ) or to totalitarian régimes (which he viewed as oppressive). He returned to Argentina in 1941, and served as an Army skiing-instructor in Mendoza Province . In 1943 a coup d'état was led by General Arturo Rawson against Ramón Castillo , who had assumed the presidency a little less than a year earlier as

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5312-483: A way of occupying an empty territory, configuring the national population and, through their colonizing effort, gradually incorporating the nation into the world market. These changes were perhaps best summarized by the anthropological metaphor which states that “Argentines descend from ships.” The strength of the immigration and its contribution to the Argentine ethnography is evident by observing that Argentina became

5478-422: A wide range of social welfare benefits for unionised workers. Employers were forced to improve working conditions and to provide severance pay and accident compensation, the conditions under which workers could be dismissed were restricted, a system of labour courts to handle the grievances of workers was established, the working day was reduced in various industries, and paid holidays/vacations were generalised to

5644-484: Is also present in the subsequent cultural developments of the Tehuelche people. From this time and until the European arrival (early 16th century) the Tehuelche people were hunter-gatherers who utilized seasonal mobility, moving towards guanaco herds. During the winter they were in the low areas (meadows, wetlands, shores, lake shores, etc.), and during the summer they moved up to the central plateaus of Patagonia or to

5810-508: Is known about Tehuelche culture before the use of the horse, although their socioeconomic organization resembled that of the Ona people from Tierra del Fuego. The introduction of the horse by the Spaniards, which they became acquainted with as of 1570, transformed the social organization of Tehuelche people: the introduction caused groups to develop dependencies on horses in their daily lives. Like

5976-529: Is over 10,000 years old. Both are among the oldest evidence of indigenous culture in the Americas, and have, with a number of similarly ancient sites on other parts of the southern hemisphere , challenged the " Clovis First " hypothesis on the settlement of the Americas (the assumption, based on lacking evidence to the contrary, that the Clovis culture was the first in the Western Hemisphere ). By

6142-738: Is strict justice... I do nothing but return to the poor what the rest of us owe them, because we had taken it away from them unjustly." In 1948 she established the Eva Perón Foundation , which was perhaps the greatest contribution to her husband's social policy. Enjoying an annual budget of around US$ 50 million (nearly 1% of GDP at the time), the Foundation had 14,000 employees and founded hundreds of new schools, clinics, old-age homes and holiday facilities; it also distributed hundreds of thousands of household necessities, physicians' visits and scholarships, among other benefits. Among

6308-625: The 1951 Pan American Games , both of which Argentine athletes won resoundingly. He also sponsored numerous notable athletes, including the five-time Formula 1 world champion, Juan Manuel Fangio , who, without this funding, would have most likely never competed in Europe. Perón's bid to host the 1956 Summer Olympics in Buenos Aires was defeated by the International Olympic Committee by one vote. Economic success

6474-510: The 24 February 1946 presidential elections . When Perón became president on 4 June 1946, his two stated goals were social justice and economic independence. These two goals avoided Cold War entanglements from choosing between capitalism and socialism, but he had no concrete means to achieve those goals. Perón instructed his economic advisers to develop a five-year plan with the goals of increasing workers' pay, achieving full employment, stimulating industrial growth of over 40% while diversifying

6640-792: The Argentine Northwest , is home to the highest percentage of households (15%) with at least one indigenous resident or a direct descendant of an indigenous person; Chubut and Neuquén Provinces , in Patagonia , have upwards of 12%. The earliest known evidence of indigenous peoples in Argentina is dated 11,000 BC and was discovered in what is now known as the Piedra Museo archaeological site in Santa Cruz Province . The Cueva de las Manos , also in Santa Cruz,

6806-601: The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires and the provinces of Buenos Aires , Córdoba , La Pampa , Mendoza , and San Luis . This region includes the provinces of Chubut , Neuquén , Río Negro , Santa Cruz , and Tierra del Fuego . Tehuelche people The Tehuelche people , also called the Aónikenk , are an Indigenous people from eastern Patagonia in South America. In the 18th and 19th centuries

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6972-728: The Bank of England . The money was useless to the Argentine government, because the treaty allowed Bank of England to hold the funds in trust, something British planners could not compromise on as a result of that country's debts accrued under the Lend-Lease Act . The nation's need for U.S. made capital goods increased, though ongoing limits on the Central Bank's availability of hard currency hampered access to them. Argentina's pound Sterling surpluses earned after 1946 (worth over US$ 200 million) were made convertible to dollars by

7138-512: The CGT on Buenos Aires' wide Nueve de Julio Avenue failed to turn the tide. On 28 September, elements in the Argentine Army led by General Benjamín Andrés Menéndez attempted a coup against Perón. Although unsuccessful, the mutiny marked the end of the first lady's political hopes. She died the following July. The first to vocally oppose Perón's rule were the Argentine intelligentsia and

7304-765: The Chonan languages and the Het languages. The available evidence distinguishes between six languages in the Tehuelche complex: the Chon group (Teushen, Aoenek'enk, Selk'nam and Haush), the language of the Gününa küne indigenous group and the language of the Querandí people. The language of the Aonekkenk people appears more closely related to the language of the Teushen people (central eastern Chonan). These languages in turn maintain

7470-601: The Chubut river separated the two largest subdivisions: the "Southern Tehuelche" and "Northern Tehuelche". The first subdivision stretched towards the south to the Strait of Magellan , whereas the second group extended towards the north to the Colorado River (Argentina) and Rio Negro (Argentina) . The presence, or lack thereof, Tehuelche people in the Pampas has led to disagreements among researchers, who have not agreed on

7636-533: The Democratic Union nominated José Tamborini and Enrique Mosca , two prominent UCR congressmen. The alliance failed to win over several prominent lawmakers, such as congressmen Ricardo Balbín and Arturo Frondizi and former Córdoba governor Amadeo Sabattini , all of whom opposed the Union's ties to conservative interests. In a bid to support their campaign, US Ambassador Spruille Braden published

7802-535: The General Confederation of Labour (CGT) was given overwhelming support by the new administration, which introduced labour courts and filled its cabinet with labour union appointees, such as Juan Atilio Bramuglia (Foreign Ministry) and Ángel Borlenghi (Interior Ministry, which, in Argentina, oversees law enforcement). It also made room for amenable wealthy industrialists (Central Bank President Miguel Miranda) and socialists such as José Figuerola ,

7968-498: The Huemul Project would produce nuclear fusion before any other country. The project was led by an Austrian, Ronald Richter , who had been recommended by Kurt Tank . Tank expected to power his aircraft with Richter's invention. Perón announced that energy produced by the fusion process would be delivered in milk-bottle sized containers. Richter announced success in 1951, but no proof was given. The next year, Perón appointed

8134-652: The Italian Alps in 1939. He also attended the University of Turin for a semester and served as a military observer in countries across Europe – holding positions as a military attaché in Berlin and in Rome. He studied Benito Mussolini 's Italian Fascism , Nazi Germany , and other European governments of the time, concluding in his summary, Apuntes de historia militar ( Notes about military history , first published in 1932, 2nd ed., 1934 ), that social democracy could be

8300-545: The Port of Buenos Aires and domestic and foreign-owned private cargo ships , as well as the purchase of others, nearly tripled the national merchant marine to 1.2 million tons' displacement, reducing the need for over US$ 100 million in shipping fees (then the largest source of Argentina's invisible balance deficit) and leading to the inauguration of the Río Santiago Shipyards at Ensenada (on line to

8466-515: The fossil fuel industry by ordering these resources nationalized, inaugurating Río Turbio (Argentina's only active coal mine), having natural gas flared by the state oil firm YPF captured, and establishing Gas del Estado . The 1949 completion of a gas pipeline between Comodoro Rivadavia and Buenos Aires was another significant accomplishment in this regard. The 1,700 km (1,060 mi) pipeline allowed natural gas production to rise quickly from 300,000 m to 15 million m daily, making

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8632-761: The "Peénken" (people of the North), the "Háunikenk" (people of the South), and the "Aónikenk" (the people of the West). In his 1949 piece El complejo tehuelche. Estudio de etnografía patagónica ( The Tehuelche Complex. An Ethnographic study of Patagonians ), the military doctor Federico A. Escalada classified the Tehuelche people from historic periods, on the basis of the Estudio de la realidad humana y de la bibliografía ( Study of Human Reality and Bibliography ), into five simple categories, each with their own language derived from

8798-621: The 16th to the 19th centuries due to their large stature and physical strength. Since the 18th century, there was important commercial activity and product exchanges among the native inhabitants of the Pampas plains and the Sierras of the current Buenos Aires Province , the inhabitants of Northern Patagonia, and those of both edges of the Andes . There were two very important trade fairs in Cayrú and Chapaleofú. These trade fairs, called "Poncho fairs" by

8964-526: The 1830s; in later life Perón would publicly express his pride in his Sardinian roots. He also had Spanish, British, and French ancestry. Perón's great-grandfather became a successful shoe merchant in Buenos Aires, and his grandfather was a prosperous physician; his death in 1889 left his widow nearly destitute, however, and Perón's father moved to then-rural Lobos, where he administered an estancia and met his future wife. The couple had their two sons out of wedlock and married in 1901. His father moved to

9130-414: The 1920s, Perón made record investments in Argentina's infrastructure. Investing over US$ 100 million to modernize the railways (originally built on myriad incompatible gauges), he also nationalized a number of small, regional air carriers, forcing them into Aerolíneas Argentinas in 1950. The airline, equipped with 36 new DC-3 and DC-4 aircraft, was supplemented with a new international airport and

9296-475: The 19th century major population movements altered the original Patagonian demography. Between 1820 and 1850 the original Aonikenk people were conquered and expelled from their territories by invading Mapuche (that called them Tehuelches ) armies. By 1870 most of northern Patagonia and the south east Pampas were Araucanized . During the Generation of 1880 , European immigration was strongly encouraged as

9462-463: The 2010 census there are the following indigenous groups: According to the 2022 census there are the following indigenous groups: This region includes the provinces of Chaco , Corrientes , Entre Ríos , Formosa , Misiones , Santa Fe , and parts of Santiago del Estero Province . This region includes the provinces of Catamarca , Jujuy , La Rioja , Salta , San Juan , parts of Santiago del Estero Province , and Tucumán . This region includes

9628-415: The 2010 census; indigenous communities and Afro-Argentines thus became the only groups accorded any recognition as ethnic categories by the 2010 census. As of the 2010 census [ INDEC ] , some 955,032 Argentines (2.38% of the country's population) self-identify as indigenous or first-generation descendants of indigenous peoples. The first government-led effort to produce accurate statistical data on

9794-435: The 3rd party in Argentina was formed. Simultaneous to Perón's five-year plans, Eva supported a women's movement that concentrated on the rights of women, poor people, and disabled people. Although her role in the politics of Perón's first term remains disputed, Eva introduced social justice and equality into the national discourse. She stated, "It is not philanthropy, nor is it charity... It is not even social welfare; to me, it

9960-485: The 40th President from October 1973 to his death in July 1974. He is the only Argentine president elected three times, and holds the highest percentage of votes in clean elections with universal suffrage. Perón is the most important and controversial Argentine politician of the 20th century, and his influence extends to the present day. Perón's ideas, policies and movement are known as Peronism , which continues to be one of

10126-514: The Andes mountains where they had, among other sacred sites, Mount Fitz Roy . On 31 March 1520 the Spanish expedition, under the command of Fernando de Magallanes , landed in San Julián Bay to spend the winter there. Here, they made contact with Tehuelche indigenous groups, who they referred to as "Patagones", as told by the scribe, Antonio Pigafetta . Pigaffetta described these people as

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10292-447: The Aonekken ("people of the South") people speak the language commonly known as the Tehuelche language or Tshoneka or Aonekkenk, which constitutes the language currently most studied from the group and the only language that continues to be used. There is a group of people who try to recover the language through a program called "Kkomshkn e wine awkkoi 'a'ien" ("I am not ashamed of speaking Tehuelche"). The organization focuses on spreading

10458-471: The Argentine Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, is tasked with overseeing the government's indigenous policy and maintaining track of Argentina's indigenous communities and their rights to their ancestral lands. As of 2018, the INAI kept register of 1,653 communities, of which 1,456 held legal ownership over various territories. Genetic ancestry of the average Argentinian gene pool according to Caputo et al. (2021) using X-DIPs (matrilineal). In addition to

10624-413: The Argentine flag colors, and focused on the antagonism of Yankee imperialism. He persuaded the president to sign the nationalization of the Central Bank and the extension of mandatory Christmas bonuses, actions that contributed to his decisive victory. Perón and his running mate, Hortensio Quijano , leveraged popular support to victory over a Radical Civic Union -led opposition alliance by about 11% in

10790-431: The Argentine government. His sons, Chiefs Papón and Mulato, ended up on a reserve in southern Chile. The Tehuelche people had to live with Welsh immigrants who, since the second half of the 19th century, began to settle in Chubut: the relations were generally harmonious between the two groups. In 1869, Chief Biguá recognized the need to defend the Welsh against a potential attack from Chief Calfucurá. Little information

10956-451: The Camusu Aike reservation was created for the "gathering of Tehuelche tribes". The reservation is located in the Santa Cruz Province of Argentina. In 1922, President Hipólito Yrigoyen created the following reserves by decree: Lago Viedma (Lots 119–117) between 20,000 and 25,000 hectares (200–250 km ; 77–97 sq mi), Lago Cardiel (Lot 6) and Lago Cardiel (Lot 28 bis). The first two were stripped of their status in 1966 and

11122-565: The Desert in the 1870s, which resulted in over 1,300 indigenous dead. Indigenous cultures in Argentina were consequently affected by a process of invisibilization, promoted by the government during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th. The extensive explorations, research and writing by Juan Bautista Ambrosetti and other ethnographers during the 20th century, which followed earlier pioneer studies by anthropologists such as Robert Lehmann-Nitsche , encouraged wider interest in indigenous people in Argentina, and their contributions to

11288-405: The Fatherland. Kill a Student" ( Haga patria, mate a un estudiante ). Perón opposed the universities, which questioned his methods and his goals. A well-remembered slogan was, Alpargatas sí, libros no ("Shoes? Yes! Books? No!") ... Universities were "intervened". In some a peronista mediocrity was appointed rector. Others were closed for years. The labour movement that had brought Perón to power

11454-441: The GOU junta unseated him in favor of General Edelmiro Farrell . For contributing to his success, Perón was appointed vice president and Secretary of War, while retaining his Labour portfolio. As Minister of Labour, Perón established the INPS (the first national social insurance system in Argentina), settled industrial disputes in favour of labour unions (as long as their leaders pledged political allegiance to him), and introduced

11620-405: The Gennakenk people of Neuquén, the upper valley of Río Negro and the so-called 'country of Strawberries', or Chulilaw (the region approximately bounded to the north by Lake Nahuel Huapi, to the east by the low mountains and morraines called Patagónides, to the west by the high summits of the Andes and to the south by Lake Buenos Aires/General Carrera). The horse, or more precisely, the mare, became

11786-452: The Indies), that "We Spaniards call them the Patagones for their big feet", which the historian Francisco López de Gómara agreed with in 1552. Based on these accounts, the first name the Spanish used to refer to the Tehuelche people was the Patagones. However, some researchers speculate, without verifiable bases, that Magellan could have been inspired by the dog-headed monster from the 1512 novel Primaleón known as "Pathogan". According to

11952-579: The Jesuits at the time who recorded their existence (such as Thomas Falkner ), were places for the exchange of various types of products: from livestock and agricultural products to garments, such as ponchos. Cayrú was located in the most western part of the Tandilia system (in the current territory of the Olavarría Partido ). Chapaleofú refers to the homonymic water stream vicinity, situated in

12118-687: The Labour Department witnessed the passage of a broad range of progressive social reforms designed to improve working conditions, and led to an alliance with the socialist and syndicalist movements in the Argentine labour unions, which increased his power and influence in the military government. After the coup, socialists from the CGT -Nº1 labour union, through mercantile labour leader Ángel Borlenghi and railway union lawyer Juan Atilio Bramuglia , made contact with Perón and fellow GOU Colonel Domingo Mercante . They established an alliance to promote labour laws that had long been demanded by

12284-616: The Pampas and central and North of Patagonia, producing the Araucanization of a large part of the ancient inhabitants. Finally, the subsequent Conquest of the Desert carried out by the Argentine Army led to the near extinction of these indigenous communities. This historic overview has led to the disagreement among researchers. In the 19th century, explorers such as Ramón Lista and George Chaworth Musters named them "tsóneka", "tsónik" or "chonik". The majority of experts agree that

12450-600: The Pampas and the Indigenous Cultures of Patagonia) in which he proposed that between the 16th and 19th centuries the "Gününa-küne" or "Tuelches" lived from the southern half of the province of Rio Negro to the boundary between the present Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces. The "Serranos" were to the North of them and the "Aônükün'k" or "Patagones" were located to the South. These peoples were divided between three groups:

12616-663: The Patagones and Pehuenches on the banks of the Senguerr River; other combat occurred at Barrancas Blancas and Shótel Káike. By 1828, the Pincheira Royalist army attacked the Tehuelche group in the Bahía Blanca and Carmen de Patagones area. The Tehuelche people south of the Río Negro had a female chief: María la Grande . Her successor, Casimiro Biguá , was the first Tehuelche chief to make treaties with

12782-777: The Patagonia region that year, where he later purchased a sheep ranch . Juan himself was sent away in 1904 to a boarding school in Buenos Aires directed by his paternal grandmother, where he received a strict Catholic upbringing. His father's undertaking ultimately failed, and he died in Buenos Aires in 1928. The youth entered the National Military College in 1911 at age 16 and graduated in 1913. He excelled less in his studies than in athletics, particularly boxing and fencing. Perón began his military career in an Infantry post in Paraná, Entre Ríos . He went on to command

12948-559: The Patagonian men whose height reportedly averaged above 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) by some accounts and around 183 centimetres (6 ft) by other accounts. Thus the Europeans may have considered them to be "Patones" ('large footed') or the Patagonians may have reminded the explorers of the giant Pathoagón from the knighthood novel Primaleón . The Patagonians' large craniometry made them famous in European literature from

13114-526: The Peronist movement to the working-class people from which Eva had come. Her strong ties to the poor and her position as Perón's wife brought credibility to his promises during his first presidential term and ushered in a new wave of supporters. The first lady's willingness to replace the ailing Hortensio Quijano as Perón's running mate for the 1951 campaign was defeated by her own frail health and by military opposition. A 22 August rally organized for her by

13280-459: The Peronists. Labour unions grew in ranks from around 500,000 to over 2 million by 1950, primarily in the CGT, which has since been Argentina's paramount labour union. As the country's labour force numbered around 5 million people at the time, Argentina's labour force was the most unionized in South America. During the first half of the 20th century, a widening gap had existed between

13446-1005: The Secretary of the Media, Raúl Apold , socialist dailies such as La Vanguardia or Democracia, and conservative ones such as La Prensa or La Razón , were simply closed or expropriated in favor of the CGT or ALEA, the regime's new state media company. Intimidation of the press increased: between 1943 and 1946, 110 publications were closed down; others such as La Nación and Roberto Noble 's Clarín became more cautious and self-censoring. Perón appeared more threatened by dissident artists than by opposition political figures (though UCR leader Ricardo Balbín spent most of 1950 in jail). Numerous prominent cultural and intellectual figures were imprisoned (publisher and critic Victoria Ocampo , for one) or forced into exile, among them comedian Niní Marshall , film maker Luis Saslavsky , pianist Osvaldo Pugliese and actress Libertad Lamarque , victim of

13612-585: The Southern provinces of Argentina, such as Río Negro and Neuquén , were on average 40% of indigenous, 54% European, and 6% of African ancestry. Finally, only in areas of massive historical European immigration in Argentina, namely the Central provinces ( Buenos Aires and the surrounding urban areas), Argentines were of overwhelmingly European ancestry, with the average person having 17% indigenous, 76% European, and 7% of African ancestry. In another study, that

13778-616: The Soviet Union, as allies rather than enemies. He restored diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, severed since the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, and opened grain sales to the shortage-stricken Soviets. Peron’s ability to effectively deal with points of contention abroad was hampered by Perón's own mistrust of potential rivals, which harmed foreign relations with Juan Atilio Bramuglia 's 1949 dismissal. The rising influence of American diplomat George F. Kennan ,

13944-521: The Strait of Magellan: The Tehuelhets, who in Europe are known by the name of Patagons, have been, through ignorance of their idiom, called Tehuelchus; for chu signifies country of abode, and not people; which is expressed by the word het, and, more to the south, by the word kunnee or kunny. These and the Chechehets are known to the Spaniards by the name of Serranos, or Mountaineers. They are split into

14110-567: The Study of the Gününa küne Indian ), claiming that they called their language Gününa yájitch or Pampa. During the 1950s, Casamiquela collected vocabulary, songs and prayers from various elders, outlining a morphosyntactic analysis. In 1960, Ana Gerzenstein made a phonetic and phonological classification in her Fonología de la lengua gününa-këna ( Phonology of the Gününa-këna Language ). In 1991, José Pedro Viegas Barros outlined

14276-540: The Tehuelche and Ranquel peoples adopted many of the Mapuche customs and their language, while the Mapuches adopted parts of the Tehuelche way of life (such as living in tolderías) and thereby, the differences between the two groups were blurred to the point that their descendants refer to themselves as Mapuche-Tehuelche people. During the first half of the 18th century, Chief Cacapol and his son, Chief Cangapol , were

14442-495: The Tehuelche were influenced by Mapuche people, and many adopted a horseriding lifestyle. Once a nomadic people, the lands of the Tehuelche were colonized in the 19th century by Argentina and Chile, gradually disrupting their traditional economies. The establishment of large sheep farming estates in Patagonia was particularly detrimental to the Tehuelche. Contact with outsiders also brought in infectious diseases ushering deadly epidemics among Tehuelche tribes. Most existing members of

14608-527: The Toldense industry emerged, consisting primarily of goods such as two-sided sub-triangular projectile points, lateral and terminal scrapers, bifacial knives and tools made from bone. Later, between 7000 and 4000 B.C., the Casapedrense industry appeared, characterized by a greater proportion of stone tools made in sheets, which was most likely a demonstration of a specialization in guanaco hunting, which

14774-551: The U.S. agricultural lobby through the Agricultural Act of 1949 ), Argentine foreign exchange earnings via its exports to the United States fell, turning a US$ 100 million surplus with the United States into a US$ 300 million deficit. The combined pressure practically devoured Argentina's liquid reserves and Miranda issued a temporary restriction on the outflow of dollars to U.S. banks. The nationalization of

14940-532: The Welsh. There was a widespread critical view of the Argentine militaries' treatment of the Tehuelche and of traders who provided Tehuelches with alcohol and weaponry. Tehuelches were reportedly seen as uncivilized, savage and childlike by the Welsh. As early as the second half of the 19th century, Tehuelche groups were abducted and displayed against their will in countries such as Belgium , Switzerland , (Germany), France and England. More specific data shows that

15106-585: The best-known of the Foundation's many large construction projects are the Evita City development south of Buenos Aires (25,000 homes) and the " Republic of the Children ", a theme park based on tales from the Brothers Grimm . Following Perón's 1955 ousting, twenty such construction projects were abandoned incomplete, and the foundation's US$ 290 million endowment was liquidated. The portion of

15272-690: The centrist Radical Civic Union (UCR), the Socialist Party , the Communist Party and most of the conservative National Autonomist Party (in power during most of the 1874–1916 era) had already been forged into a fractious alliance in June by interests in the financial sector and the chamber of commerce, united solely by the goal of keeping Perón from the Casa Rosada . Organizing a massive kick-off rally in front of Congress on 8 December,

15438-440: The classes; Perón hoped to close it through the increase of wages and employment, making the nation more pluralistic and less reliant on foreign trade. Before taking office in 1946, President Perón took dramatic steps which he believed would result in a more economically independent Argentina, better insulated from events such as World War II. He thought there would be another international war. The reduced availability of imports and

15604-528: The coast of the Pacific Ocean. This was the start of cultural exchanges and migratory movements, between distinct groups such as the Tehuelche, Ranquel and Mapuche people. Although Mapuche trade started as a means of fostering commerce and alliances, it was completed by generating a large cultural influence on the Tehuelche and other groups, to the point that it is referred to as the "Mapuchization" or " Araucanization of Patagonia ". A large portion of

15770-422: The conservative opposition, provoked an ovation by declaring that "we've passed social reforms to make the Argentine people proud to live where they live, once again." This move fed growing rivalries against Perón and on 9 October 1945, he was forced to resign by opponents within the armed forces. Arrested four days later, he was released due to mass demonstrations organised by the CGT and other supporters; 17 October

15936-429: The construction of 650,000 new, public sector homes, as well as of the international airport , one of the largest in the world at the time. The reactivation of the dormant National Mortgage Bank spurred private-sector housing development: averaging over 8 units per 1,000 inhabitants (150,000 a year), the pace was, at the time, at par with that of the United States and one of the highest rates of residential construction in

16102-517: The country in the world that received the second highest number of immigrants, with 6.6 million, second only to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of countries such as Canada, Brazil , Australia, etc. The expansion of European immigrant communities and the railways westward into the Pampas and south into Patagonia was met with Malón raids by displaced tribes. This led to the Conquest of

16268-404: The country self-sufficient in the critical energy staple; the pipeline was, at the time, the longest in the world. Propelled by an 80% increase in output at the state-owed energy firm YPF , oil production rose from 3.3 million m to over 4.8 million m during Perón's tenure; but since most manufacturing was powered by on-site generators and the number of motor vehicles grew by a third,

16434-490: The country was limited and the original indigenous population largely thrived after their initial decline owing to the introduction of European diseases and colonization. Similarly, the study also showed that the population in the North Eastern provinces of Argentina (for example, Misiones , Chaco , Corrientes , and Formosa ) were on average 43% of indigenous, 54% European, and 3% of African ancestry. The population of

16600-541: The country were 31% of indigenous, 63% of European, and 6.4% of African ancestry. Finally, the population in the Pampa region of the country were 22% of indigenous, 68% of European, and 10% of African ancestry. Finally, in another study published in 2005 involving the North Western provinces of the country, the genetic structure of 1293 individuals from Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Catamarca and La Rioja

16766-617: The country's indigenous peoples was the 2001 national census, which included a question on self-identification with indigenous nations. A more in-depth statistical survey came in 2004, with the Complimentary Survey on Indigenous Populations carried out by the National Institute for Indigenous Affairs (INAI). The 2004 survey which accounted for 600,329 people who see themselves as descending from or belonging to indigenous people. Indigenous organisations have questioned

16932-577: The country, it was observed that 65% of the Argentine population was of European descent, followed by 31% of indigenous descent, and 4% of African descent. The same study also found there were great differences in the ancestry amongst Argentines as one traveled across the country. For example, the population in the North West provinces of Argentina (including the province of Salta ) were on average of 66% indigenous, 33% European, and 1% of African ancestry. The European immigration to this North West part of

17098-547: The country, opposed to the more than 31 groups recognized by the INAI today. This increase reflects a growing awareness amongst indigenous people in terms of their ethnic belonging. As many Argentines either believe that the majority of the indigenous have died out or are on the verge of doing so, or 'their descendants' assimilated into Western civilisation many years ago, they wrongly hold the idea that there are no indigenous people in their country. The use of pejorative terms likening

17264-594: The country. For example, Argentines who hailed from Patagonia were 45% indigenous and 55% of European ancestry. The population in the North West part of the country were made up of 69% of indigenous, 23% of European, and 8% of African ancestry. The population in the Gran Chaco part of the country were 38% of indigenous, 53% of European, and 9% of African ancestry. The population in the Mesopotamian part of

17430-404: The current Tandil Partido . Both municipalities, or partidos, are located in the interior of the current Buenos Aires Province . The movements of people to participate in the exchanging of products generated certain cultural exchanges between different groups living anywhere from the humid Pampas, the northern Patagonia, the immediate area near the Andes (both on its western and eastern edges), to

17596-534: The data collected by Hunziker and Claraz to create a comparative vocabulary of Tehuelche languages: El grupo lingüístico tschon de los territorios magallánicos ( The Chonan Linguistic Groups of the Magellanic Territories ). In 1925, Harrington gathered words from bilingual Tehuelche speakers which he published in 1946 in Contribución al estudio del indio gününa küne ( A Contribution to

17762-459: The dawn of the equestrian complex, longitudinal movements (from south to north and vice versa) were very important in establishing extensive exchange networks. In the mid-19th century the Aonikenk exchanged their skins and mollusks for cholilas (strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, Magellan barberry , Chilean pine tree seeds, Cyttaria , buds and Chilean bamboo buds, etc.) and apples with

17928-455: The different terms that were used to refer to the native population groups from these regions. There are various causes that have prevented the establishment of one unique and complete classification. Among these circumstances, the extinction of some of these groups, coupled with the vast amount of land on which these groups were distributed, which inhibited Spanish explorers who first identified certain Tehuelche peoples from making contact with all

18094-466: The director of the War Academy , General José Félix Uriburu , to collaborate in the latter's plans for a military coup against President Hipólito Yrigoyen of Argentina. Perón, who instead supported General Agustín Justo , was banished to a remote post in northwestern Argentina after Uriburu's successful coup in September 1930 . He was promoted to the rank of Major the following year and named to

18260-425: The economically active population) were covered by social security. Health insurance also spread to new industries, including banking and metalworking . Between 1945 and 1949, real wages went up by 22%, fell between 1949 and 1952, and then increased again from 1953 to 1955, ending up at least 30% higher than in 1946. In proportional terms, wages rose from 41% of national income in 1946–48 to 49% in 1952–55. The boost in

18426-444: The entire workforce. Perón also passed a law providing minimum wages, maximum hours and vacations for rural workers, froze rural rents, presided over a large increase in rural wages, and helped lumber, wine, sugar and migrant workers organize themselves. From 1943 to 1946, real wages grew by only 4%, but in 1945 Perón established two new institutions that would later increase wages: the " aguinaldo " (a bonus that provided each worker with

18592-505: The establishment of a government bureau, the National Institute Against Discrimination, Xenophobia , and Racism (INADI), in 1995. Corrientes Province , in 2004, became the first in the nation to award an indigenous language ( Guaraní ) with co-official status, and all 35 native peoples were recognized by both the 2004 Indigenous Peoples Census and by their inclusion as self-descriptive categories in

18758-414: The existence of a Tehuelche complex. Casamiquela proposed the following classification for the continental area circa 1700: The different ethnic groups that are recognized under the broad term "Tehuelche" spoke languages whose exact quantity and relationships have been subject to different opinions. For Roberto Lehmann Nitsche, the languages stemming from the Pampas and Patagonia divided in to two groups,

18924-614: The existence of a separate subdivision called the "Pampas", nor what their relationship and borders were with the Mapuches. One of the primary classifications was from English Jesuit Thomas Falkner in his 1774 work A description of Patagonia and the adjoining parts of South America , which introduced the ethnic name ' Het peoples ' for the Puelche people, which included the Tehuelche: The Puelches, or Eastern Peoples ... They bear different denominations, according to

19090-450: The existence of an organised conspiracy to overthrow Perón in the air force, which Reyes agreed to support. Tortured in prison, Reyes was denied parole five years later, and freed only after the regime's 1955 downfall. Cipriano Reyes was one of hundreds of Perón's opponents held at Buenos Aires' Ramos Mejía General Hospital, one of whose basements was converted into a police detention center where torture became routine. The populist leader

19256-628: The face of public opposition). Perón was opposed to borrowing from foreign credit markets, preferring to float bonds domestically. He refused to enter the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (precursor to the World Trade Organization ) or the International Monetary Fund . Believing that international sports created goodwill, however, Perón hosted the 1950 World Basketball Championship and

19422-405: The factual accuracy of the 2004 survey: First, the methodology used in the survey was considered inadequate, as a large number of indigenous people live in urban areas where the survey was not fully conducted. Second, many indigenous people in the country hide their identity for fear of discrimination. Moreover, when the survey was designed in 2001, it was based on the existence of 18 known peoples in

19588-641: The faculty at the Superior War School, however, where he taught military history and published a number of treatises on the subject. He served as military attaché in the Argentine Embassy in Chile from 1936 to 1938 and returned to his teaching post. His wife was diagnosed with uterine cancer that year and died on 10 September at age 36; the couple had no children. The Argentine War Ministry assigned Perón to study mountain warfare in

19754-427: The first and last name of the last Puelche speaker: José María Cual, who died in 1960 at the age of 90. Although mobile, Tehuelche groups tended to move in specific circuits, predominantly from west to east and vice versa. During each season, the groups had places where they would set up camps, known as aik or aiken among themselves, and referred to as tolderías by the Spanish and Creoles . Each Tehuelche group

19920-414: The five-year plans which argued for full employment, public healthcare and housing, labour benefits, and raises were a result of Eva's influence on the policymaking of Perón in his first term, as historians note that initially he simply wanted to keep imperialists out of Argentina and create effective businesses. The humanitarian relief efforts embedded in the five-year plan were Eva's creation, which endeared

20086-406: The group currently reside in cities and towns of Argentine Patagonia. The name "Tehuelche complex" has been used by researchers in a broad sense to group together indigenous peoples from Patagonia and the Pampas . Several specialists, missionaries and travelers have proposed grouping them together on account of the similarities in their cultural traits, geographic vicinity and languages, even though

20252-478: The groups. In other cases, the seasonal migrations that they practiced which involved traveling long distances made Europeans that observed them overestimate the number of people from a group or the distribution range of a language. In conjunction with all of these factors, the intrusion of the Mapuches , or Araucans, from the west deeply transformed their cultural reality, intermixing and absorbing ethnic groups from

20418-566: The hostile Braden with Ambassador George Messersmith . Perón negotiated the release of Argentine assets in the U.S. in exchange for preferential treatment for U.S. goods, followed by Argentine ratification of the Act of Chapultepec , a centerpiece of Truman's Latin America policy. He even proposed the enlistment of Argentine troops into the Korean War in 1950 under UN auspices (a move retracted in

20584-522: The indigenous groups in the North American Great Plains, the Tehuelche also worked the thicket steppes of Patagonia, living mainly off of guanaco and rhea meat (ñandú or choique), followed by South Andean deer , deer , Patagonian mara and even puma and jaguar meat, in addition to certain plants (although late, they learned how to cultivate the land). As for fish and shellfish, there were certain cases where their consumption

20750-474: The indigenous population in Argentina, most Argentines are descendants of indigenous peoples or have some indigenous ancestry. Many genetic studies have shown that Argentina's genetic footprint is primarily, but not overwhelmingly, European. In a genetic study involving 441 Argentines from across the North East, North West, Southern, and Central provinces (especially the urban conglomeration of Buenos Aires) of

20916-457: The indigenous to lazy, idle, dirty, ignorant and savage are part of the everyday language in Argentina. Due to these incorrect stereotypes many indigenous have over the years been forced to hide their identity in order to avoid being subjected to racial discrimination. As of 2011 many natives were still being denied land and human rights. Many of the Qom native community had been struggling to protect

21082-415: The land they claim as ancestral territory and even the lives of its members. Qom community leader Félix Díaz claimed that his people were being denied medical assistance, did not have access to drinking water, and were subject to arbitrary rises on food prices by non-indigenous businesses. He also claimed the local justice system refused to hear the local community's complaints. The INAI, which reports to

21248-524: The language and culture. In 1864, Hunziker recorded a vocabulary and a collection of phrases from a language called Genakenn in the Viedma region. In 1865, the explorer Jorge Claraz traveled from south of Buenos Aires to Chubut being guided by individuals who spoke Gününa iajëch, collecting the names of places, words and sentences in his Diario de viaje de exploración al Chubut ( Chubut exploration travel diary ) (1865–1866). In 1913, Lehmann Nitsche used

21414-538: The languages they spoke amongst themselves were not related to each other and their geographic distributions were extensive. According to the historian Antonio Pigafetta from Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition in 1520, he referred to the indigenous people he came across in the San Julian Bay as the "Patagoni". In 1535 the historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés explained in his Historia general y natural de las Indias (General and Natural History of

21580-586: The major forces in Argentine politics. Perón had previously served in several government positions, including Minister of Labour and Vice President under presidents Pedro Pablo Ramírez and Edelmiro Farrell . His first presidential term (1946–1952), Perón was supported by his second wife, Eva Duarte ("Evita"); they were immensely popular among the Argentine working class. Perón's government invested heavily in public works , expanded social welfare , and forced employers to improve working conditions. Trade unions grew rapidly with his support and women's suffrage

21746-451: The middle-class. University students and professors were seen as particularly troublesome. Perón fired over 2000 university professors and faculty members from all major public education institutions. These included Nobel laureate Bernardo Houssay , a physiologist, University of La Plata physicist Rafael Grinfeld, painter Emilio Pettoruti , art scholars Pío Collivadino and Jorge Romero Brest , and noted author Jorge Luis Borges who at

21912-863: The most important chiefs in the regions extending from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Oceans, and from the Río Negro to the Salado River . Cangapol had a seat in the government in the Sierra de la Ventana region, and their people were known as the "Mountain Pampas". The Pampas knew how to align themselves with the Mapuches from the west, to attack the Buenos Aires Campaign in 1740. In this process there were also inter-ethnic struggles and by 1820 heavy combat erupted between

22078-524: The most widespread view, the word Tehuelche comes from the Mapuche term chewel che, which would mean "brave people", "rugged people", or "barren land people". Another version suggests that it could be derived from one of their factions, the Tueshens, plus the Mapuche word "che" meaning 'people' or 'peoples'. The classification of indigenous groups that lived in the Pampas and Patagonia is confusing due to

22244-566: The nation's culture were further underscored during the administration of President Juan Perón in the 1940s and 1950s as part of the rustic criollo culture and values exalted by Perón during that era. Discriminatory policies toward these people and other minorities officially ended, moreover, with the August 3, 1988, enactment of the Antidiscrimination Law (Law 23.592) by President Raúl Alfonsín , and were countered further with

22410-684: The need for oil imports grew from 40% to half of the consumption, costing the national balance sheet over US$ 300 million a year (over a fifth of the import bill). Perón's government is remembered for its record social investments. He introduced a Ministry of Health to the cabinet; its first head, the neurologist Ramón Carrillo , oversaw the completion of over 4,200 health care facilities. Related works included construction of more than 1,000 kindergartens and over 8,000 schools, including several hundred technological, nursing and teachers' schools, among an array of other public investments. The new Minister of Public Works, General Juan Pistarini , oversaw

22576-614: The other half to finance both public and private investments; the roughly 70% jump in domestic fixed investment was accounted for mostly by industrial growth in the private sector. All this much-needed activity exposed an intrinsic weakness in the plan: it subsidized growth which, in the short term, led to a wave of imports of the capital goods that local industry could not supply. Whereas the end of World War II had allowed Argentine exports to rise from US$ 700 million to US$ 1.6 billion, Perón's changes led to skyrocketing imports (from US$ 300 million to US$ 1.6 billion) and erased

22742-590: The political movement known as Peronism, which in present-day Argentina is represented mainly by the Justicialist Party . Juan Domingo Perón was born in Lobos, Buenos Aires Province , on 8 October 1895. He was the son of Juana Sosa Toledo and Mario Tomás Perón. The Perón branch of his family was originally Spanish, but settled in Spanish Sardinia , from which his great-grandfather emigrated in

22908-574: The post, and in this capacity mediated a prolonged labour conflict in 1920 at La Forestal , then a leading firm in forestry in Argentina . He earned instructor's credentials at the Superior War School , and in 1929 was appointed to the Army General Staff Headquarters. Perón married his first wife, Aurelia Tizón ( Potota , as Perón fondly called her), on 5 January 1929. Perón was recruited by supporters of

23074-489: The present day). Exports fell sharply, to around US$ 1.1 billion during the 1949–54 era (a severe 1952 drought trimmed this to US$ 700 million), due in part to a deterioration in terms of trade of about a third. The Central Bank was forced to devalue the peso at an unprecedented rate: the peso lost about 70% of its value from early 1948 to early 1950, leading to a decline in the imports fueling industrial growth and to recession. Short of central bank reserves, Perón

23240-417: The real incomes of workers was encouraged by government policies such as the enforcement of minimum wage laws, controls on the prices of food and other basic consumption items and extending housing credits to workers. Perón first articulated his foreign policy, the "Third Way", in 1949. This policy was developed to avoid the binary Cold War divisions and keep other world powers, such as the United States and

23406-430: The resources from their territories; a violation of this rule led to war. The Tehuelche had a very organized family unit, in which men were the authoritative figures and women were subordinate. In most family contexts, the father would offer his daughter for marriage in exchange for various goods. Each man could have two or three wives, depending on his status. As in the case of other ethnic groups that did not develop

23572-476: The sector (then dominated by food processing), and greatly improving transportation, communication, energy and social infrastructure (in the private, as well as public, sectors). Perón's planning prominently included political considerations. Numerous military allies were fielded as candidates, notably Colonel Domingo Mercante who, when elected Governor of the paramount Province of Buenos Aires , became renowned for his housing program. Having brought him to power,

23738-581: The situation of their respective countries, of because they were originally of different nations. Those toward the north are called Taluhets; to the west and south of these are the Diuihets; to the south east, the Chechehets; and to the south of these last is the country of the Tehuelhets ... or Falkner the "Tehuelhets" or "Patagones" were the Tehuelche people who lived from the banks of the Rio Negro to

23904-413: The surplus by 1948. Perón's bid for economic independence was further complicated by a number of inherited external factors. Great Britain owed Argentina over 150 million pounds Sterling (nearly US$ 650 million) from agricultural exports to that nation during the war. This debt was mostly in the form of Argentine Central Bank reserves which, per the 1933 Roca-Runciman Treaty , were deposited in

24070-610: The test flights, the planes were flown by Lieutenant Edmundo Osvaldo Weiss and Tank, reaching 1,000 km/h (620 mph) with the Pulqui II. Argentina continued testing the Pulqui II until 1959; in the tests, two pilots lost their lives. The Pulqui project opened the door to two successful Argentinian planes: the IA 58 Pucará and the IA 63 Pampa , manufactured at the Aircraft Factory of Córdoba. Perón announced in 1951 that

24236-437: The third in 1990. Juan Per%C3%B3n Juan Domingo Perón ( UK : / p ɛ ˈ r ɒ n / , US : / p ɛ ˈ r oʊ n , p ə ˈ -, p eɪ ˈ -/ , Spanish: [ˈxwan doˈmiŋɡo peˈɾon] ; 8 October 1895 – 1 July 1974) was an Argentine lieutenant general, politician and statesman who served as the 29th President of Argentina from 1946 to his overthrow in 1955, and again as

24402-437: The time was head of the National Library of Buenos Aires , was appointed "poultry inspector" at the Buenos Aires Municipal Wholesale Market (a post he refused). Many left the country and migrated to Mexico, United States or Europe. The theologian Herold B. Weiss recalls events in the universities: As a young student in Buenos Aires in the early 1950s, I well remember the graffiti found on many an empty wall all over town: "Build

24568-414: The vice president of Roberto María Ortiz following Ortiz's resignation due to illness; both Ortiz and Castillo had been elected in the 1937 presidential election , which has been described as being among the most fraudulent in Argentine history. The military was opposed to Governor Robustiano Patrón Costas , Castillo's hand-picked successor, who was the principal landowner in Salta Province , as well as

24734-511: The war's beneficial effects on both the quantity and price of Argentine exports had combined to create a US$ 1.7 billion cumulative surplus during those years. In his first two years in office, Perón nationalized the Central Bank and paid off its billion-dollar debt to the Bank of England ; nationalized the railways (mostly owned by British and French companies), merchant marine , universities, public utilities, public transport (then, mostly tramways); and, probably most significantly, created

24900-590: The workers' movement, to strengthen the unions, and to transform the Department of Labour into a more significant government office. Perón had the Department of Labour elevated to a cabinet-level secretariat in November 1943. Following the devastating January 1944 San Juan earthquake , which claimed over 10,000 lives and leveled the Andes range city, Perón became nationally prominent in relief efforts. Junta leader Pedro Ramírez entrusted fundraising efforts to him, and Perón marshaled celebrities from Argentina's large film industry and other public figures. For months,

25066-407: The world. Perón modernized the Argentine Armed Forces , particularly its Air Force . Between 1947 and 1950, Argentina manufactured two advanced jet aircraft: Pulqui I (designed by the Argentine engineers Cardehilac, Morchio and Ricciardi with the French engineer Émile Dewoitine , condemned in France in absentia for collaborationism ), and Pulqui II , designed by German engineer Kurt Tank . In

25232-532: The year 1500, many different indigenous communities lived in what is now modern Argentina. They were not a unified group but many independent ones, with distinct languages, societies, and relations with each other. As a result, they did not face the arrival of the Spanish colonization as a single block and had varied reactions toward the Europeans. The Spanish people looked down on the indigenous population, considering them inferior to themselves. For this reason, they kept very little historical information about them. In

25398-401: Was also an ancient transition language between the Penkkenk and the Aonekkenk languages, called Tehuesh (Tewsün, Téushenkenk or Teushen), which was gradually replaced by the Aonekkenk language. However, a large portion of the current names of places in the central plateau retain their Tewsün roots today; for example, the name of the Chubut Province is derived from the term " chupat" . Finally,

25564-408: Was also made a universal right by the Workers' Bill of Rights enacted on 24 February 1947 (subsequently incorporated into the 1949 Constitution as Article 14-b), while social security was extended to virtually all members of the Argentine working class. From 1946 to 1951, the number of Argentinians covered by social security more than tripled, so that in 1951 more than 5 million people (70% of

25730-792: Was analysed. This study showed that the Spanish contribution (50%) predominated in Argentina's North West, followed by the Amerindian (40%) and African (10%) contributions. According to this study, Argentines from Jujuy were 53% indigenous, 47% European, and 0.1% African ancestry. Argentines from Salta were 41% of indigenous, 56% of European, and 3.1% of African ancestry. Those from Catamarca were 37% of indigenous, 53% of European, and 10% of African ancestry. Those from La Rioja were on average 31% indigenous, 50% European, and 19% African ancestry. The inhabitants of Santiago del Estero were on average 30% indigenous, 46% European, and 24% African ancestry. The inhabitants of Tucumán were on average 24% indigenous, 67% European, and 9% African ancestry. According to

25896-410: Was banned: for example, some groups had prohibited the consumption of fish. Their groups used to consist of between 50 and 100 members. The adoption of the horse meant an extensive social change in Tehuelche culture: the new mobility altered their ancestral territories and greatly affected their movement patterns. Before the 17th century east–west movements prevailed in pursuit of guanacos; however, as of

26062-411: Was composed of various kinship and they had specific territories for hunting and gathering. The boundaries of these territories were defined through ancestry by markers with unknown significance: a hill, a trough, a hollow, or important tree. In cases where a group could not satisfy their needs in their own territory, they had to ask for the permission of neighboring people from the same ethnic group to use

26228-566: Was elected as vice president on his ticket and succeeded him as president upon his death in 1974. Political violence only intensified, and she was ousted in 1976 , followed by a period of even deadlier repression under the junta of Jorge Rafael Videla . Although they are still controversial figures, Juan and Eva Perón are nonetheless considered icons by the Peronists. The Peróns' followers praised their efforts to eliminate poverty and to dignify labour , while their detractors considered them demagogues and dictators. The Peróns gave their name to

26394-669: Was far more troubled. Eva, a major source of support, died a month after his inauguration in 1952. An economic crisis was ongoing, Perón and his plans to legalise divorce and prostitution damaged his standing with the Catholic Church . After he deported two Catholic priests and was mistakenly thought to be excommunicated , pro-Church elements of the Argentine Navy and Air Force driven by the U.S government bombed Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires , where supporters of Perón had gathered, in June 1955. More than 300 civilians were killed in this coup attempt, which in turn prompted violent reprisals against many churches by Perón's supporters. Within months,

26560-539: Was forced to borrow US$ 125 million from the U.S. Export-Import Bank to cover a number of private banks' debts to U.S. institutions, without which their insolvency would have become a central bank liability. Austerity and better harvests in 1950 helped finance a recovery in 1951; but inflation, having risen from 13% in 1948 to 31% in 1949, reached 50% in late 1951 before stabilizing, and a second, sharper recession soon followed. Workers' purchasing power, by 1952, had declined 20% from its 1948 high and GDP, having leapt by

26726-431: Was granted with Eva's influence. His government was also known to employ dictatorial tactics; several dissidents were fired, exiled, or arrested, and much of the press was closely controlled. Several high-profile fascist war criminals, such as Josef Mengele , Adolf Eichmann , and Ante Pavelić , were given refuge in Argentina during this time. Perón was re-elected by a fairly wide margin, though his second term (1952–1955)

26892-419: Was intolerant of both left-wing and conservative opposition. Though he used violence, Perón preferred to deprive the opposition of their access to media. Interior Minister Borlenghi administered El Laborista , the leading official news daily. Carlos Aloe, a personal friend of Evita's, oversaw an array of leisure magazines published by Editorial Haynes , which the Peronist Party bought a majority stake in. Through

27058-457: Was later commemorated as Loyalty Day . His paramour, Eva Duarte , became hugely popular after helping organize the demonstration; known as "Evita", she helped Perón gain support with labour and women's groups. She and Perón were married on 22 October. Perón's candidacy on the Labour Party ticket, announced the day after the 17 October 1945 mobilization, became a lightning rod that rallied an unusually diverse opposition against it. The majority of

27224-412: Was not exempt from the iron fist. In the 1946 elections for the post of Secretary General of the CGT resulted in telephone workers' union leader Luis Gay's victory over Perón's nominee, former retail workers' leader Ángel Borlenghi – both central figures in Perón's famed 17 October comeback. The president had Luis Gay expelled from the CGT three months later, and replaced him with José Espejo,

27390-409: Was short-lived. Following a lumbering recovery during 1933 to 1945, from 1946 to 1953 Argentina gained benefits from Perón's five-year plan . The GDP expanded by over a fourth during that brief boom, about as much as it had during the previous decade. Using roughly half the US$ 1.7 billion in reserves inherited from wartime surpluses for nationalizations, economic development agencies devoted most of

27556-410: Was titled the Regional pattern of genetic admixture in South America, the researchers included results from the genetic study of several hundreds of Argentines from all across the country. The study indicated that Argentines were as a whole made up of 38% indogenous, 58.9% of European, and 3.1% of African ancestry. Again, there were huge difference in the genetic ancestry from across the various regions of

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