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68-595: Natla may refer to: natla (נַטְלָה), a cup used for ritual handwashing in Judaism , from the Greek word αντλίον ( natla ) Jacqueline Natla , a character in the Tomb Raider games Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Natla . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

136-481: A book to proving it. According to historian David Sorkin, Eybeschütz was probably a Sabbatean, and Eybeschütz's son openly declared himself to be a Sabbatean after his father's death. There is further background which suggests that Eybeschutz may have been a Sabbatean. In July 1725, the Ashkenazic beit din of Amsterdam issued a ban of excommunication on the entire Sabbatean sect (kat ha-ma’aminim) based partially on

204-453: A child with her. However, there have been allegations that ''Megillat Sefer'' was tampered with, and had deliberately ridiculous accusations, as well as outlandish tales, written in to the original in order to make a mockery of Emden. Clashes between opposing supporters occurred in the streets drawing the attention of the secular authorities. The majority of the community, including Aryeh Leib Epstein of Königsberg , favored Eybeschütz; thus

272-567: A child, he asked his father, the Chacham Tzvi, why he signed his name as simply Tzvi צבי, without his father's name (בן יעקב). The father said that Tzvi stands for Tzvi ben Yaakov צבי בן יעקב, and that when the son grows up, and writes books, he should sign Ya'avetz יעב"ץ . The Yud Ayyin combination of Yaavetz would stand for Yaakov (rather than Yosef, or Yehuda), and the remaining two letters representing ben Tzvi : יע קב ב ן צ בי. The name Yaavetz appears in 1 Chronicles 2:55 as

340-436: A foremost rabbinic authority, first at Altona , then at Amsterdam (1710–1714). In 1715 Emden married Rachel, daughter of Mordecai ben Naphtali Kohen , rabbi of Ungarisch-Brod , Moravia (the modern Czech Republic), and continued his studies in his father-in-law's yeshivah . Emden became well versed in all branches of Talmudic literature; later he studied philosophy, kabbalah , and grammar , and made an effort to acquire

408-487: A piece of food which has been dipped in a liquid (e.g. water, honey, oil, etc.) which then clings to that piece, with the one exception of fruits, seeing that they do not require hand washing. While the Shulhan Arukh requires the washing of hands prior to eating fruits that are merely damp with one of the seven liquids, Maimonides does not mention this stringency in his Mishneh Torah . Rabbi Hayim Kessar says that

476-464: A state of scarcity, and are quickly taken out of the world. Exodus 30:17–20 requires the priests to wash their hands and feet before offering sacrifices or entering the Tabernacle . Solomon's Temple contained ten brazen lavers to allow for this washing. The Mishnah records that priests were also required to wash hands and feet after urinating. The use of these lavers did not pertain to

544-457: A tendency to touch objects and become dirty, and it is inappropriate for holy food to be touched by dirty hands. By declaring impurity on hands which might have become dirty, the decree ensured that terumah would be eaten with hands that are clean. The Babylonian Talmud debates whether this decree was enacted by the Houses of Hillel and Shammai, or else by Hillel and Shammai themselves (in

612-401: A vessel three times, intermittently, over each hand. Reasons given for this washing vary: to remove an evil spirit from one's fingers, or in preparation for the morning prayer, or to make the hands physically clean before reciting blessings and studying Torah. This is performed when awaking from a full night's sleep, or even after a lengthy nap. The Talmud states God commanded Jews to wash

680-403: Is a known water source there. This applies only to when the water source lies in one's direction of travel. However, had he already passed the water source, he is only obligated to backtrack to a distance of one biblical mile. The one exception to this rule is when a man or a party of men are encamped while on a journey, and there is no water to be found in the vicinity of their camp, in which case

748-468: Is considered praiseworthy in Jewish law. The water used must be naturally pure, unused, not contain other substances, and not discoloured. The most developed and, perhaps, important of these washings is the washing of hands before eating bread. It is looked upon with such rigidity, that those who willfully neglect its practice are said to make themselves liable to excommunication, and bring upon themselves

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816-405: Is customarily done in the morning. Rather, one or two pours for each hand are sufficient. Although the minimal quantity of water needed to fulfill one's religious duty is 1/4 of a log (a liquid measure of capacity equal to the bulk or volume of one and half medium-sized eggs), and must be sufficient to cover at least the middle joints of one's fingers, water poured out in excess of this amount

884-475: Is much larger than the author's Shaarei ShaMaYim siddur. A physically smaller siddur, reprinted in Israel 1994, was titled Siddur Rebbe Yaakov of Emden (Hebrew: סידור רבי יעקב מעמדין) on the upper half of the cover, and Siddur HaYaavetz Shaarei ShaMaYim (סדור היעבייץ שערי שמים) The content/commentary is not as detailed/extensive as the full Emden siddur (for example, it is missing Tikkun Leil Shavuot ). It

952-428: Is not automatically cancelled. Another reason has given the assertion that in every kor of salt, there is to be found a qurtov of salt of Sodom. Although mayim acharonim was once not widely practiced (for example, until recently it did not appear in many Orthodox Passover Haggadahs ) it has undergone something of a revival and has become more widely observed in recent years, particularly for special meals such as

1020-402: Is not required, since nowadays it is customary to eat with forks and knives, and salt is unlikely to get on the fingers. Based on these sources, in many communities nowadays mayim acharonim is not practiced. Nevertheless, many others continue to practice it. One reason to continue practicing it is the principle that if the underlying reason behind a rabbinic ruling no longer applies, the ruling

1088-518: Is poured out over one's hands with the aid of a vessel: 1) upon waking from sleep, and 2) before eating bread. These hand washings are nearly always accompanied with a special blessing prior to concluding the actual act of washing (see infra ). The basis of references in the Bible to this practice, e. g., Elisha pouring water upon the hands of Elijah . Water should be poured on each hand at least twice. A clean dry substance should be used instead if water

1156-423: Is referred to as serakh terumah ( Hebrew : סרך תרומה , "[washing introduced] on account of terumah "); as all Jews were now required to wash their hands before eating bread, it was expected that the delinquent priests too would wash their hands before eating terumah . The Talmud states that one must wash hands for two reasons, one being serakh terumah , and the other being "the commandment". This last phrase

1224-490: Is the 1994 re-issue of the Shaarei ShaMaYim siddur. His unpublished rabbinical writings are the following: 20th century printings (Lemberg 1904, Augsburg 1948) with a cover title " Siddur Beis Yaakov " (also Anglicized as Siddur Bet Yaakov) (Hebrew סידור בית יעקב) exist. Their cover(s) say Jacob from Emden יעקב מעמדין. The 472 page Lemberg 1904 printing has Tikun Leil Shavuot on pages 275-305. This siddur

1292-412: Is touched by one who has a discharge without rinsing his hands in water must wash their clothes and bathe with water, and they will be unclean till evening") as a hint for general handwashing law, using asmachta (a Biblical hint, rather than an explicit requirement). Halakha requires the hands to be washed before eating a meal containing bread, an act that involves pouring water over both hands up to

1360-452: Is unavailable. Other instances of handwashing may be done with running water from a normal faucet. Other methods have developed concerning over which hand one is to begin when pouring water over them. The general custom in the morning (based on a kabbalistic teaching) is to take-up the vessel in one's right hand, pass the vessel into his left hand, and only then begin to pour out water from that vessel over his right hand. Then one reverses

1428-458: Is unclear; according to one opinion in the Talmud it simply refers to the commandment to obey the sages after they instituted the handwashing requirement. Other interpretations suggest an independent second reason for handwashing, such as to promote cleanliness. It is unclear what sort of regulations were already in place during the late Second Temple period. A reference to hand washing is made in

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1496-634: The Haskalah movement, and with a number of Christian scholars. In 1772 Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin , having issued a decree forbidding burial on the day of death, the Jews in his territories approached Emden with the request that he demonstrate from the Talmud that a longer exposure of a corpse would be against the Law. Emden referred them to Mendelssohn, who had great influence with Christian authorities and wrote in excellent German. Mendelssohn wrote

1564-527: The Houses of Hillel and Shammai decreed the priests' hands to be ritually impure , which disqualified their eating terumah foods until washing those hands (as terumah may only be eaten while pure). This law was one of the eighteen new enactments made in the house of Hananiah ben Hezekiah ben Garon . It is recorded in Mishnah Bikkurim 2:1, which states that terumah and bikkurim "require

1632-491: The Latin and Dutch languages, in which, however, he was seriously hindered by his belief that a Jew should occupy himself with secular sciences only during times it was impossible to study Torah . Emden spent three years at Ungarisch-Brod , where he held the office of private lecturer in Talmud. Later he became a dealer in jewelry and other articles, an occupation which compelled him to travel. He generally declined to accept

1700-530: The Shabbat and Jewish holidays . No blessing is recited on this washing. Generally, only a small amount of water is poured over the outer two segments of the fingers, while a minority (primarily Yemenite Jews or related groups) wash the entire hand up to the wrist. The water is sometimes poured from a special ritual dispenser. One should not pause between the washing and reciting birkat hamazon . Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook explained that our involvement in

1768-738: The Temple in Jerusalem , in whose absence prayer, in Orthodox Judaism , serves in its place. In Orthodox Judaism (and, in some cases, in Conservative Judaism ), Kohanim , members of the priestly class, offer the Priestly Blessing before the congregation on certain occasions. Before performing their offices, they are required to wash their hands. Judaism traces this requirement to Exodus 30:19 , which requires

1836-479: The Babylonian Talmud contains homiletic descriptions of the importance of the practice, including an argument that washing before meals is so important that neglecting it is tantamount to un chastity , and risks divine punishment in the form of sudden destruction or poverty. Rabbinic law requires that travelers go as far as four biblical miles to obtain water for washing prior to eating bread if there

1904-709: The Christian New Testament , when the Pharisees asked Jesus why his disciples did not wash hands prior to eating bread. It is reported that "the Pharisees and all the Jews" considered this washing a "tradition of the elders", yet Jesus and the disciples did not do it - even though one proclaimed to be the Messiah might be expected to follow the highest standards for holy behavior. Thus, the disciples' non-observance may indicate that handwashing for bread

1972-472: The Sages of Israel have exempted them from washing their hands prior to breaking bread. Rabbinic sources discuss a practice to wash hands after a meal, before reciting Birkat Hamazon . This practice is known as mayim acharonim ("after-waters"). According to the Talmud, the washing is motivated by health concerns, to remove the "salt of Sodom " which may have been served at the meal - as salt originating from

2040-497: The Sodom area allegedly causes blindness, should it be on one's fingers and they happen to touch their eyes. The Talmud considered mayim acharonim obligatory, and more important that washing before the meal. Many, but not all, later sources agree. However, Tosafot ruled that mayim acharonim is not required in current circumstances, since the salt of Sodom is no longer served at meals. Similarly, R' Yaakov Emden ruled that it

2108-468: The United Kingdom from 1765 to 1780. The acronym Ya'avetz ( יעב"ץ , also written Yaavetz ) stands for the words Yaakov (Emden) ben Tzvi (his father's name, יעקב (עמדין) בן צבי ). Seven of his 31 works were published posthumously. Jacob Emden (born Ashkenazi) was the 5th of his father's 15 children. Until the age of seventeen, Emden studied Talmud under his father Tzvi Ashkenazi ,

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2176-548: The amulets. Conflicting testimony was put forward and the matter remained officially unresolved although the court sentenced the council of the three communities to pay a fine of one hundred thaler for civil unrest and ordered that Emden be allowed to return to Altona. Emden then returned to Altona and took possession of his synagogue and printing-establishment, though he was forbidden to continue his agitation against Eybeschütz. The latter's partisans, however, did not desist from their warfare against Emden. They accused him before

2244-463: The approbation of the chief rabbi of the German communities. According to Jacob Katz , "Rabbi Jacob Emden: Life and Major Works" ( Jacob J. Schacter , unpublished PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1988), "supplanted" Mortimer J. Cohen 's 1937 book Jacob Emden: A Man of Controversy, as the most authoritative source on Emden. In the preface to his She'I'Las Yaavetz , Emden describes how, as

2312-438: The authorities of continuing to publish denunciations against his opponent. One Friday evening (July 8, 1755) his house was broken into and his papers seized and turned over to the "Ober-Präsident" (royally imposed mayor), Henning von Qualen (1703–1785)  [ de ] . Six months later von Qualen appointed a commission of three scholars, who, after a close examination, found nothing which could incriminate Emden. Eyebeschutz

2380-678: The ban on polygamy instituted by Rabbeinu Gershom believing it erroneously followed Christian morals, although he admitted he lacked the power to do so. Emden wrote that he owned books containing secular wisdom written in Hebrew, but that he would read them in the bathroom. He was opposed to philosophy and maintained that the views contained in The Guide for the Perplexed could not have been authored by Maimonides , but rather by an unknown heretic. The two-volume set (first pair, left side)

2448-403: The blessing over his hands, before he wipes them dry. In the hand washing made for eating bread, the custom differs: one takes the vessel in his right hand and pours water in abundance over his left hand. He then takes the vessel in his left hand and pours water in abundance over his right hand. In this case (for eating bread), it is not necessary to wash the hands three times, intermittently, as

2516-503: The chief rabbi of the German community, were positive at first, but deteriorated swiftly. A few years later Emden obtained from the King of Denmark the privilege of establishing at Altona a printing-press. He was soon attacked for his publication of the siddur (prayer book) Ammudei Shamayim , due to his harsh criticisms of the powerful local money changers. His opponents did not cease denouncing him even after he had obtained for his work

2584-558: The council condemned Emden as a slanderer. People were ordered, under pain of excommunication, not to attend Emden's synagogue, and he himself was forbidden to issue anything from his press. As Emden still continued his philippics against Eybeschütz, he was ordered by the council of the three communities to leave Altona. This he refused to do, relying on the strength of the king's charter, and he was, as he maintained, relentlessly persecuted. His life seeming to be in actual danger, in May 1751 he left

2652-687: The discovery of certain Sabbatean writings by it. Rabbi Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen, the chief rabbi of the Three Communities was unwilling to attack Eybeschütz publicly, but stated that one of the Sabbatean texts found by the Amsterdam beit din "Va-Avo ha-Yom el ha-Ayyin” was authored by Eybeschütz and declared that the all copies of the work that were in circulation should be immediately burned. The recent discovery in Metz of notarial copies of

2720-735: The disputed amulets written by Eyebeschutz support Emden's view that these are Sabbatean writings. In 1756 the members of the Synod of Constantinov applied to Emden to aid in repressing the Sabbatean movement. As the Sabbateans referred much to the Zohar , Emden thought it wise to examine that book, and after a careful study he concluded that a great part of the Zohar was the production of an impostor. Emden's works show him to have been possessed of critical powers rarely found among his contemporaries. He

2788-539: The enactment only applied to dipping fruits or vegetables in a liquid, but not when wetness merely clung to those fruits or vegetables. Nowadays this washing is not widely practiced, with one notable exception: During a Passover Seder , the hands are washed without reciting a blessing before eating karpas , a washing referred to as "Urchatz". According to the Shulchan Aruch , a person should wash both hands before prayer. This hand washing does not require

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2856-643: The face of the growing influence of the Sabbatean movement . He was acclaimed in all circles for his extensive knowledge. Emden was the son of the hakham Tzvi Ashkenazi , and a descendant of Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chełm . He lived most his life in Altona (now a part of Hamburg , Germany), His son was Meshullam Solomon , rabbi of the Hambro Synagogue in London who claimed authority as Chief Rabbi of

2924-529: The general public, nor to their eating foods with washed hands. The Mishnah (Tractate Yadayim ) is the first to describe the ritual of hand washing outside of the Temple. According to the Babylonian Talmud , King Solomon made an additional decree that priests must wash their hands before eating meat from animal sacrifices. Following the example of King Solomon , in the 1st or 2nd century CE,

2992-450: The hands and provides the text of the netilat yadaim blessing still in use. A blessing is prescribed over hand washing before eating bread and when one wakes up from his sleep in the morning. Maimonides prescribes saying the blessing before one actually pours water over his hands, as brought down by the Code of Jewish Law, and the Talmud requiring that for all of the commandments

3060-429: The hands can contract second-level impurity, either by touching a first-level impurity, or by experiencing hesech hadaat (distraction), which renders the hands impure again, as they might have touched a dirty or impure object without the person noticing. This impurity can then be removed again by handwashing. According to the Babylonian Talmud, the reason for the decree is that "hands are busy" (i.e. fidgety), and have

3128-507: The law is of rabbinic origin, according to one opinion there is a hint ( asmachta ) to it in Leviticus 15:11 . In subsequent years, many priests were ignoring the requirement to wash hands before touching terumah . To encourage the performance of this law, it was decreed that all Jews (priests and non-priests) must wash their hands before eating bread, even if that bread to be eaten was only ordinary non- terumah bread. This hand washing

3196-525: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natla&oldid=1058194875 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Handwashing in Judaism The Talmud used the requirement of handwashing in Leviticus 15:11 ("The person who

3264-466: The name of a place, and in 1 Chronicles 4:9–10 as a person's name. Emden accused Jonathan Eybeschütz of being a secret Sabbatean . The controversy lasted several years, continuing even after Eybeschütz's death. Emden's assertion of Eybeschütz's heresy was chiefly based on the interpretation of some amulets prepared by Eybeschütz, in which Emden saw Sabbatean allusions. Hostilities began before Eybeschütz left Prague , and in 1751, when Eybeschütz

3332-512: The office of rabbi, though in 1728 he was induced to accept the rabbinate of Emden , from which place he took his name. He returned to Altona in, where he obtained permission from the Jewish community to possess a private synagogue. Emden was at first on friendly terms with Moses Hagis , the head of the Portuguese -Jewish community at Altona, who was afterward turned against Emden by some calumny. His relations with Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen ,

3400-401: The order by taking-up the vessel in his right hand and pouring out water from that vessel over his left hand. This process is repeated altogether three times for each hand, with intermittent changing of hands after each pouring. When this is accomplished, he then takes the vessel and pours out water over both hands, simultaneously, after which he rubs his hands together and then lifts them to make

3468-483: The physical act of eating has the potential to diminish our sense of holiness. To counteract this influence, we wash our hands after the meal. The Talmudic Sages spoke of washing away the "salt of Sodom" – a place whose very name is a symbol of selfishness and indifference to others. "This dangerous salt, which can blind our eyes to the needs of others, is rendered harmless through the purifying ritual of mayim acharonim ." Some sources speak of washing hands, before eating

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3536-458: The prayer. According to the Shulchan Aruch , a person who slept is required to wash upon arising, and says the netilat yadayim blessing. This ritual is known by the Yiddish term נעגל וואַסער ( negel vasser , lit. "nail water"), and sometimes in Hebrew as Netilat Yadayim Shacharit . This Yiddish term is also used for a special cup used for such washing. The water is poured out from

3604-528: The priests to wash their hands before Temple service. The verse also refers to washing of feet, but this is generally not practiced in the absence of a Temple in Jerusalem . The water for this washing is commonly poured on the priests' hands by Levites , who also assist priests in other ways. In some communities priests do not wash their hands before the Priestly Blessing, the reasoning being that they have already washed hands upon awakening before

3672-427: The prophecy that the knowledge of God will one day spread throughout the earth." Emden praised the ethical teachings of Christianity, considering them beneficial in removing the prevalence of idolatry and bestowing gentiles with a "moral doctrine". Emden also suggested that ascetic Christian practices provided additional rectification of the soul in the same way that Judaic commandments do. He theoretically advocated

3740-547: The recitation of the blessing must be made prior to one performing the action. But for some, the custom has developed to recite the blessing only after he has poured water over his hands and has rubbed them together, while they are raised in the air to the height of his chin, prior to his drying them with a towel. The blessing text is as follows: "Blessed are you, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who has sanctified us through your commandments and has commanded us concerning

3808-472: The requested letter to the Duke, but privately complained to Emden that based on the Talmud, it seemed the Duke was correct. Emden wrote to him in strong terms, saying that it was ludicrous to assert that the custom of the entire Jewish people was blatantly incorrect, and told Mendelssohn that this kind of claim would only strengthen rumors of irreligiousness he (Mendelssohn) had aroused by his associations. Emden

3876-469: The taking of a concubine by a scholar since the sages of the Talmud stated "the greater the man, the greater his evil inclination " and cited many sources in support. He also suggested it might be permissible under certain circumstances for a Jewish man to cohabit with a single Jewish woman, provided that she is in an exclusive relationship with him that is public knowledge and where she would not be embarrassed to ritually immerse . He also wished to revoke

3944-589: The town and took refuge in Amsterdam, where he had many friends and where he joined the household of his brother-in-law, Aryeh Leib ben Saul , rabbi of the Ashkenazic community. The controversy was heard by both the Senate of Hamburg and by the Royal Court of Denmark. The Hamburg Senate quickly found in favour of Eybeschütz. King Frederick V of Denmark asked Eybeschütz to answer a number of questions about

4012-503: The use of a cup (or similar vessel), though many have the custom to use a cup. No blessing is recited on this washing. If water cannot be obtained, the hands may be cleaned in another manner instead. As the Shacharit prayer is commonly recited shortly after awakening, many Jews rely on the handwashing upon awakening, and do not wash hands again before Shacharit. This washing is likened to the ritual purification required before entering

4080-557: The washing of hands" ( Hebrew : בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה הָ׳ אֱלֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם אֲשֶׁר קִדְּשָׁנוּ בְּמִצְוֹתָיו וְצִוָּנוּ עַל נְטִילַת יָדַיִם ). Immediately following the recital of the blessing, one must dry the hands with a towel or similar. A text from the Cairo Geniza , following the Palestinian minhag , has been discovered where the blessing concluded al mitzvat shetifat yadayim . In two of these hand washings, water

4148-416: The washing of the hands." Halacha specifies a number of different levels of impurity ; each level can result from touch by an object at one higher level. By this handwashing degree, all human hands automatically have second-level impurity ( sheni letumah ) until washed, a level which is sufficient to invalidate terumah . A person's entire body cannot contract second-level impurity; only (by rabbinic law)

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4216-410: The wrists. In some places, this act is repeated twice. This washing was initially known as mayim rishonim (first waters) but is now commonly known simply as netilat yadayim (hand washing). This only applies to bread made from one of the five chief grains (wheat, cultivated barley, spelt, wild barley, and oats). The washing is performed by pouring water from a cup over each hand. The Gemarah of

4284-448: The year circa 32 BCE ). It concludes that Hillel and Shammai issued the decree but this was not commonly accepted; and later, the Houses of Hillel and Shammai reissued the degree and it was accepted. The Jerusalem Talmud states that Hillel and Shammai did not originate washing before eating terumah , but rather the requirement had existed in ancient times, and then was neglected and forgotten until Hillel and Shammai revived it. While

4352-454: Was a traditionalist who responded to the ideals of tolerance being circulated during the 18th-century Enlightenment . He stretched the traditional inclusivist position into universal directions. Like Maimonides, he believed that monotheistic faiths have an important roles to play in God's plan for mankind, writing that "we should consider Christians and Muslims as instruments for the fulfilment of

4420-510: Was named chief rabbi of the three communities of Altona, Hamburg , and Wandsbek , the controversy reached the stage of intense and bitter antagonism. Emden maintained that he was at first prevented by threats from publishing anything against Eybeschütz. He solemnly declared in his synagogue the writer of the amulets to be a Sabbatean heretic and deserving of excommunication . In ''Megillat Sefer'', he even accuses Eybeschütz of having an incestuous relationship with his own daughter, and of fathering

4488-456: Was not universal at the time. Perhaps, handwashing was practised by some Pharisaic schools of thought and not others (for example, by the School of Shammai and not the more lenient School of Hillel ). Yaakov Emden Jacob Emden , also known as Ya'avetz (June 4, 1697 – April 19, 1776), was a leading German rabbi and talmudist who championed traditional Judaism in

4556-519: Was re-elected as Chief Rabbi. In December of that year, the Hamburg Senate rejected both the King's decision and the election result. The Senate of Hamburg started an intricate process to determine the powers of Eybeschütz, as Chief Rabbi. The truth or falsity of his denunciations against Eybeschütz cannot be proved; Gershom Scholem wrote much on this subject, and his student Perlmutter devoted

4624-421: Was strictly Orthodox, never deviating the least from tradition, even when the difference in time and circumstance might have warranted a deviation from custom. Emden's opinions were often viewed as extremely unconventional from the perspective of strictly traditional mainstream Judaism, though not so unusual in more free-thinking Enlightenment circles. Emden had friendly relations with Moses Mendelssohn , founder of

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