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73-803: As of 2019, the NRDC had over three million members, with online activities nationwide, and a staff of about 700 lawyers, scientists and other policy experts. NRDC was founded in 1970. Its establishment was partially an outgrowth of the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission , the Storm King case. The case centered on Con Ed 's plan to build the world's largest hydroelectric facility at Storm King Mountain in New York's Hudson Valley . The proposed facility would have pumped vast amounts of water from

146-456: A basic concern. This 1965 ruling helped to establish the legitimacy of environmental issues and paved the way for lawyers and the courts to play a significant role in all manner of land-use and environmental battles. This case is part of a 17-year (1963–1981) dispute. In September, 1962, Consolidated Edison announced plans to build the country's largest pumped-storage, 2,000- megawatt (MW) hydroelectric power plant on Storm King Mountain at

219-400: A certain way in the legislature. Access to this channel is generally restricted to groups with insider status such as large corporations and trade unions – groups with outsider status are unlikely to be able to meet with ministers or other members of the bureaucracy to discuss policy. What must be understood about groups exerting influence in the bureaucracy is; "the crucial relationship here [in

292-681: A cost of $ 234 million. The proposed project also required that Con Edison buy about three hundred acres of the Black Rock Forest owned by Harvard University , which was unwilling to sell. In response to the proposal, by November 1963 citizens had formed the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference to provide a stronger unified voice against the project. Despite its opposition, the Federal Power Commission granted Consolidated Edison

365-528: A decision marking the birth of environmental law. The court stated that "The Commission's renewed proceedings must include as a basic concern the preservation of natural beauty and national historic sites, keeping in mind that in our affluent society, the cost of a project is only one of several factors to be considered." In addition, the court ruled that "On remand, the Commission should take the whole fisheries question into consideration before deciding whether

438-445: A feeling of satisfaction from expressing a political value. Also, it would not matter if the interest group achieved their goal; these members would merely be able to say they helped out in the process of trying to obtain their goals, which is the expressive incentive that they got in the first place. The types of interest groups that rely on expressive benefits or incentives are environmental groups and groups who claim to be lobbying for

511-625: A global structure such as Greenpeace were better able to adapt to globalisation. Greenpeace, for example, has offices in over 30 countries and has an income of $ 50 million annually. Groups such as these have secured the nature of their influence by gaining status as nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), many of which oversee the work of the UN and the EU from their permanent offices in America and Europe. Group pressure by supranational industries can be exerted in

584-425: A large investor-owned utility in New York. It was seeking a reliable source of energy to meet the needs of a then growing population. This case was tried in the U.S. Court of Appeals, 2nd Circuit . It was argued on October 8, 1965 and decided on December 29, 1965. The case was remanded to the Federal Power Commission in the lower courts. The decision was the beginning of what was to become environmental law. The case

657-410: A legal right to protect their special interests. This was the first decision of a court to grant standing on such terms, and established a precedent to allow similar public-based environmental groups to engage in legal processes. As Justice Hays stated, "the cost of a project is only one of several factors to be considered" in addition to "the preservation of natural beauty and national historic sites" as

730-479: A number of ways: "through direct lobbying by large corporations, national trade bodies and 'peak' associations such as the European Round Table of Industrialists ". There have been many significant advocacy groups throughout history, some of which could operated with dynamics that could better categorize them as social movements . Here are some notable advocacy groups operating in different parts of

803-437: A patriotic organization. Advocacy groups exist in a wide variety of genres based upon their most pronounced activities. In most liberal democracies , advocacy groups tend to use the bureaucracy as the main channel of influence – because, in liberal democracies, this is where the decision-making power lies. The aim of advocacy groups here is to attempt to influence a member of the legislature to support their cause by voting

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876-505: A precedent for "attainment of standing to sue than for justiciability of aesthetic issues on their merits." Within each case, it is important that aesthetic conditions be specifically mentioned within the applicable statutes. In the case of Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission case, this was the Federal Power Act. Though a powerful tool for environmental action, private litigation does not replace

949-591: A public group of citizens, the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference , organized and initiated legal action after the Federal Power Commission approved plans for Consolidated Edison to construct a power plant on Storm King Mountain , New York . The federal regulatory agency had denied that the environmental group could bring action, but the court disagreed, ruling that Scenic Hudson had legal standing because of their "special interest in aesthetic , conservational , and recreational aspects" of

1022-749: A result of group pressure, for example, the Labour Party in the UK was formed out of the new trade union movement which lobbied for the rights of workers. Advocacy groups also exert influence through channels that are separate from the government or the political structure such as the mass media and through public opinion campaigning. Advocacy groups will use methods such as protesting , petitioning and civil disobedience to attempt to exert influence in Liberal Democracies. Groups will generally use two distinct styles when attempting to manipulate

1095-555: A ruling that groups such as Scenic Hudson and other environmentalist groups had the standing to challenge the FPC's administrative rulings. Realizing that continued environmentalist litigation would require a nationally organized, professionalized group of lawyers and scientists, Duggan, Seymour, and Sive obtained funding from the Ford Foundation and joined forces with Gus Speth and three other recent Yale Law School graduates of

1168-640: Is a reward for participation that is socially derived and created out of the act of association. Examples include "socializing congeniality, the sense of group membership and identification, the status resulting from membership, fun, conviviality , the maintenance of social distinctions , and so on. People who join an interest group because of expressive benefits likely joined to express an ideological or moral value that they believe in, such as free speech , civil rights , economic justice , or political equality . To obtain these types of benefits, members would simply pay dues, and donate their time or money to get

1241-575: Is entitled to have the court decide the merits of the dispute or of particular issues." This case was significant because the court decided the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference was an aggrieved party under § 313(a) of the Federal Power Act and thus "has standing to challenge the Commission's order." They were determined to be an "aggrieved party" because of their "special interest in aesthetic, conservational, and recreational aspects of power development." This

1314-491: Is justified by the history of the Federal Power Act . Prior to this case, aesthetics were not considered worthy of standing in court. Environmental groups had to demonstrate a harm to a person or people (typically economic harm) before they could be allowed to challenge development in court and be heard. The New York Court of Appeals set aside the Storm King license and remanded to the Federal Power Commission in

1387-466: Is the timeline: The Court's decision to grant standing to the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference, a conservation group with local members, established an important legal precedent for similar groups to be able to take legal action to protect the public interest. This case has been attributed as the birth of environmental law , which is now so firmly established, it is taught as a separate branch of legal studies at most law schools today. This case sets

1460-628: The George Polk Award in 1983 for special interest reporting. The council's first president was John H. Adams , who served until 2006. He was replaced by Frances Beinecke , who served as president from 2006 to 2015. The third president was Rhea Suh , who served from 2015 to 2019. In 2020, Gina McCarthy served as the CEO and president. She previously served as the head of the Environmental Protection Agency in

1533-485: The Hudson River to a reservoir and released it through turbines to generate electricity at peak demand . A dozen concerned citizens organized the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference in opposition to the project, citing its environmental impact, and the group, represented by Whitney North Seymour Jr. , his law partner Stephen Duggan, and David Sive , sued the Federal Power Commission and successfully achieved

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1606-440: The Hudson River within the vicinity of Storm King Mountain . These surrounding local governments felt as though the development of the storage facility along with the additional transmission lines would adversely affect them. Among them were Phillipstown , Putnam Valley , Cortland , and Yorktown , all on the opposite bank and concerned about the visual impact of the project. Consolidated Edison was, and as of 2013 still is,

1679-818: The Indian Point nuclear power plant in New York. It has historically until the plant's closure in 2021, sought to close the plant. NRDC has also sought to close the Diablo Canyon nuclear plant in California. In 2018, the NRDC took no position on legislative proposals in New Jersey to subsidize three of its nuclear reactors. NRDC has argued that nuclear power is not a viable energy source to mitigate climate change, arguing that it poses public health and safety risks through nuclear waste and nuclear proliferation. In 2014, NRDC president Frances Beinecke said that

1752-554: The United States Department of Energy in February 2014. NRDC has been involved in the following Supreme Court cases interpreting United States administrative law . Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission , 354 F.2d 608 ( 2d Cir. 1965) is a United States Second Circuit Court of Appeals case in which

1825-620: The Water Rights Protection Act , a bill that would prevent federal agencies from requiring certain entities to relinquish their water rights to the United States in order to use public lands . NRDC supported the EPS Service Parts Act of 2014 (H.R. 5057; 113th Congress) , a bill that would exempt certain external power supplies from complying with standards set forth in a final rule published by

1898-504: The banning of the slave trade in 1807. In the opinion of Eugene Black (1963), "...association made possible the extension of the politically effective public. Modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century [and] the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it. From 1815, Britain after victory in the Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval characterised by

1971-433: The political process , while others have few or no such resources. Some have developed into important social, and political institutions or social movements . Some powerful advocacy groups have been accused of manipulating the democratic system for narrow commercial gain, and in some instances have been found guilty of corruption , fraud , bribery , influence peddling and other serious crimes . Some groups, generally

2044-500: The NRDC could not support nuclear power because it would lose donations. In 2012, NRDC sued the federal government to stop the 663.5-megawatt Calico solar station in the Mojave Desert in California. NRDC said the solar plant would imperil protected wildlife. In 2022, NRDC supported proposals to subsidize rooftop solar power generation. NRDC's position on hydropower is that it is not a renewable energy source. When Indian Point

2117-828: The Obama administration and became White House National Climate Advisor in the Biden administration in 2021. In 2021, NRDC selected Manish Bapna, formerly of the World Resources Institute , as their new president and CEO. At their web site NRDC state they have about 700 employees including scientists, lawyers, and policy advocates. NRDC v. U.S. EPA (1973), with David Schoenbrod caused the United States Environmental Protection Agency to begin reducing tetraethyl lead in gasoline sooner than they were going to. NRDC opposed

2190-455: The Republic , the largest of all Union Army veterans' organizations, was the most powerful single-issue political lobby of the late nineteenth century, securing massive pensions for veterans and helping to elect five postwar presidents from its own membership. To its members, it was also a secret fraternal order, a source of local charity, a provider of entertainment in small municipalities, and

2263-529: The Storm King Project is to be licensed." This also helped to establish some of the largest environmental organizations today. See " Catalyst for other action ," below. Presented by Justice Hays on behalf of Chief Justice Lumbard and Justice Waterman. In United States law , the Supreme Court of the United States has stated, "In essence the question of standing is whether the litigant

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2336-674: The US, however, advocacy group influence is much more significant. For example, in 1954 the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) lobbied against the Topeka Board of education, arguing that segregation of education based on race was unconstitutional. As a result of group pressure from the NAACP, the supreme court unanimously ruled that racial segregation in education

2409-610: The United States are using social media to interact with citizens every day. The study surveyed 53 groups, that were found to be using a variety of social media technologies to achieve organizational and political goals: As noted in the study, "while some groups raised doubts about social media's ability to overcome the limitations of weak ties and generational gaps , an overwhelming majority of groups see social media as essential to contemporary advocacy work and laud its democratizing function." Another 2012 study argued that advocacy groups use social media to reach audiences unrelated to

2482-600: The United States, the Civil Rights Movement gained much of its publicity through civil disobedience; African Americans would simply disobey the racist segregation laws to get the violent, racist reaction from the police and white Americans. This violence and racism was then broadcast all over the world, showing the world just how one sided the race 'war' in America actually was. Advocacy group influence has also manifested itself in supranational bodies that have arisen through globalisation . Groups that already had

2555-443: The acceptance of social media use by advocacy groups, populations not affiliated with media advocacy often question the benevolence of social media. Rather than exclusively fostering an atmosphere of camaraderie and universal understanding, social media can perpetuate power hierarchies . More specifically, social media can provide "a means of reproducing power and fulfilling group interest for those possessing excessive power... [having

2628-410: The aim of having their issues translated into policy such as the government encouraging alternative energy and recycling . The judicial branch of government can also be used by advocacy groups to exert influence. In states where legislation cannot be challenged by the courts, like the UK, advocacy groups are limited in the amount of influence they have. In states that have codified constitutions, like

2701-399: The assembly by lobbying. Groups with greater economic resources at their disposal can employ professional lobbyists to try and exert influence in the assembly. An example of such a group is the environmentalist group Greenpeace ; Greenpeace (an organisation with income upward of $ 50,000,000) use lobbying to gain political support for their campaigns. They raise issues about the environment with

2774-459: The bureaucracy] is usually that between the senior bureaucrats and leading business or industrial interests". This supports the view that groups with greater financial resources at their disposal will generally be better able to influence the decision-making process of government. The advantages that large businesses have is mainly due to the fact that they are key producers within their countries economy and, therefore, their interests are important to

2847-520: The class of 1969: Richard Ayres, Edward Strohbehn Jr., and John Bryson . John H. Adams was the group's first staff member and Duggan its founding chairman; Seymour, Laurance Rockefeller , and others served as members of the board. In September 1979 The Ford Foundation pulled funding for the NRDC alongside the Environmental Defense Fund after Henry Ford II said groups receiving foundation money were "antibusiness" and "biting

2920-526: The communities they help and to mobilize diverse groups of people. Mobilization is achieved in four ways: "1). Social media help connect individuals to advocacy groups and thus can strengthen outreach efforts. 2). Social media help promote engagement as they enable engaging feedback loops. 3). Social media strengthen collective action efforts through an increased speed of communication. 4). Social media are cost-effective tools that enable advocacy organizations to do more for less." While these studies show

2993-476: The development of political and social systems. Motives for action may be based on political , economic , religious , moral , commercial or common good -based positions. Groups use varied methods to try to achieve their aims, including lobbying , media campaigns, awareness raising publicity stunts , polls , research , and policy briefings. Some groups are supported or backed by powerful business or political interests and exert considerable influence on

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3066-587: The end of the Seven Years' War . Charged with seditious libel , Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant , a move that Wilkes denounced as unlawful – the Lord Chief Justice eventually ruled in Wilkes favour. As a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes – people began chanting, "Wilkes and Liberty" in

3139-429: The end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global social movement, the anti-globalization movement . Some social movement scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization, the potential for the emergence of new type of social movement is latent—they make the analogy to national movements of the past to describe what has been termed a global citizens movement . According to Stuart McConnell: The Grand Army of

3212-438: The general goal of improving farming for every farmer, even those who are not members of that particular interest group. Thus, there is no real incentive to join an interest group and pay dues if the farmer will receive that benefit anyway. For another example, every individual in the world would benefit from a cleaner environment, but environmental protection interest groups do not receive monetary help from every individual in

3285-487: The government as their contributions are important to the economy. According to George Monbiot , the influence of big business has been strengthened by "the greater ease with which corporations can relocate production and investment in a global economy ". This suggests that in the ever modernising world, big business has an increasing role in influencing the bureaucracy and in turn, the decision-making process of government. Advocacy groups can also exert influence through

3358-467: The growing maturity of the use of social movements and special-interest associations. Chartism was the first mass movement of the growing working-class in the world. It campaigned for political reform between 1838 and 1848 with the People's Charter of 1838 as its manifesto – this called for universal suffrage and the implementation of the secret ballot , amongst other things. The term "social movements"

3431-489: The hand that feeds them." The NRDC had recently challenged the FDA's interim approval for Coca-Cola's first plastic bottle made of acrylonitrile/styrene. The FDA reported that test animals exposed to acrylonitrile had "significantly lowered body weight and other adverse effects, including lesions in the central nervous system and growths in the ear ducts." and suspended its approval. In the 1970s, NRDC sought to block expansion of

3504-520: The injured." The Storm King project was to be located in an area of unique beauty and major historical significance. The highlands and gorge of the Hudson offer one of the finest pieces of river scenery in the world. The great German traveler Baedeker called it "finer than the Rhine." Petitioners' contention that the Commission must take these factors into consideration in evaluating the Storm King project

3577-638: The interests of businesses. For example, George W. Bush 's re-election campaign in 2004 was the most expensive in American history and was financed mainly by large corporations and industrial interests that the Bush administration represented in government. Conversely, left-wing parties are often funded by organised labour – when the British Labour Party was formed, it was largely funded by trade unions. Often, political parties are actually formed as

3650-649: The late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social movements, leading to the formation of communist and social democratic parties and organisations. These tendencies were seen in poorer countries as pressure for reform continued, for example in Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1905 and of 1917 , resulting in the collapse of the Czarist regime around the end of the First World War . In

3723-468: The media – they will either put across their outsider status and use their inability to access the other channels of influence to gain sympathy or they may put across a more ideological agenda. Traditionally, a prime example of such a group were the trade-unions who were the so-called "industrial" muscle. Trade-unions would campaign in the forms of industrial action and marches for workers rights, these gained much media attention and sympathy for their cause. In

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3796-406: The mid-18th century, including political representation , market capitalization , and proletarianization . The first mass social movement catalyzed around the controversial political figure, John Wilkes . As editor of the paper The North Briton , Wilkes vigorously attacked the new administration of Lord Bute and the peace terms that the new government accepted at the 1763 Treaty of Paris at

3869-421: The mountain. In order to insure that the Federal Power Commission will adequately protect the public interest in the aesthetic, conservational, and recreational aspects of power development, those who by their activities and conduct have exhibited a special interest in such areas must be held to be included in the class of 'aggrieved' parties under s. 313 (b). We hold that the Federal Power Act gives petitioners

3942-405: The movement was careful not to cross the line into open rebellion – it tried to rectify the faults in governance through appeals to existing legal precedents and was conceived of as an extra-Parliamentary form of agitation to arrive at a consensual and constitutional arrangement. The force and influence of this social advocacy movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to

4015-491: The movement's demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional and press freedom was extended to the coverage of Parliamentary debates . Another important advocacy group that emerged in the late 18th century was the British abolitionist movement against slavery . Starting with an organised sugar boycott in 1791, it led the second great petition drive of 1806, which brought about

4088-473: The national and international level. The NRDC's Center for Campaigns & Organizing (CC&O) also oversees the NRDC Action Fund, a separate 501(c)(4) nonprofit organization which engages in political and electoral activities. NRDC published onEarth , a quarterly magazine that dealt with environmental challenges, through 2016. It was founded in 1979 as The Amicus Journal . As Amicus , it won

4161-476: The ones with less financial resources, may use direct action and civil disobedience , and in some cases are accused of being a threat to the social order or ' domestic extremists '. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement, and collective action. The early growth of pressure groups was connected to broad economic and political changes in England in

4234-470: The post-war period, women's rights , gay rights , peace , civil rights , anti-nuclear and environmental movements emerged, often dubbed the New Social Movements , some of which may be considered " general interest groups" as opposed to special interest groups. They led, among other things, to the formation of green parties and organisations influenced by the new left . Some find in

4307-428: The potential to] indirectly reinforce elitist domination." By excluding those without access to the internet, social media inherently misrepresents populations- particularly the populations in low-income countries . Since media advocacy groups use social media as a way to boost the narratives of these populations, the effect of social media use can be counteractive to well-intentioned goals. Instead of directly amplifying

4380-571: The proactive approach of states and the federal government establishing environmental standards. The Natural Resources Defense Council started in 1970 from a partnership including attorneys of the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference, led by Stephen Duggan. Advocacy group Advocacy groups , also known as lobby groups , interest groups , special interest groups , pressure groups , or public associations , use various forms of advocacy or lobbying to influence public opinion and ultimately public policy . They play an important role in

4453-834: The public interest. Some public policy interests are not recognized or addressed by a group at all. These interests are labeled latent interests. Much work has been undertaken by academics attempting to categorize how advocacy groups operate, particularly in relation to governmental policy creation. The field is dominated by numerous and diverse schools of thought: There are three broad perspectives on how special interest groups achieve influence: through quid pro quo exchange, information transmission, and subsidizing policymaking. Apart from lobbying and other methods of asserting political presence, advocacy groups use social media to attract attention towards their particular cause. A study published in early 2012 suggests that advocacy groups of varying political and ideological orientations operating in

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4526-450: The right to proceed. The Commission's decision was immediately appealed and the matter was sent to the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals . The timeline below provides a more thorough context of the different cases and significant decisions. Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference was a collection of concerned citizens and other local interests. Several towns joined Scenic Hudson as plaintiffs . The towns were located along both banks of

4599-628: The right to sit in Parliament, Wilkes became an Alderman of London in 1769, and an activist group called the Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights began aggressively promoting his policies. This was the first ever sustained social advocacy group – it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. However,

4672-497: The rights of all people to the air, the water and the wild, and to prevent special interests from undermining public interests." Their stated areas of work include: " climate change , communities, energy, food, health, oceans, water, the wild". As a legal advocacy group , the NRDC works to accomplish environmental goals by operating within the legal system to reduce pollution and protect natural resources through litigation, and by working with professionals in science, law, and policy at

4745-515: The streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity , Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex , where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the King's Bench Prison on 10 May 1768, a mass movement of support emerged, with large demonstrations in the streets under the slogan "No liberty, no King." Stripped of

4818-399: The voices and narratives of historically marginalized populations , social media magnifies their concerns through the perspective of individuals with access to the internet. Since advocacy groups have the agency to control a community's narrative through a social media post, they have the agency to control the deservedness of a community as well. That is, the amount of resources or attention

4891-489: The world. This poses a problem for interest groups, which require dues from their members and contributions in order to accomplish the groups' agendas. Selective benefits are material, rather than monetary benefits conferred on group members. For instance, an interest group could give members free or discounted travel, meals, or periodical subscriptions. Many trade and professional interest groups tend to give these types of benefits to their members. A solidarity incentive

4964-516: The world: On some controversial issues there are a number of competing advocacy groups, sometimes with very different resources available to them: A general theory is that individuals must be enticed with some type of benefit to join an interest group. However, the free rider problem addresses the difficulty of obtaining members of a particular interest group when the benefits are already reaped without membership. For instance, an interest group dedicated to improving farming standards will fight for

5037-440: Was indeed unconstitutional and such practices were banned. This is a novel example of how advocacy groups can exert influence in the judicial branch of government. Advocacy groups can also exert influence on political parties. The main way groups do this is through campaign finance. For instance; in the UK, the conservative parties campaigns are often funded by large corporations, as many of the conservative parties campaigns reflect

5110-558: Was introduced in 1848 by the German Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book Socialist and Communist Movements since the Third French Revolution (1848) in which he introduced the term "social movement" into scholarly discussions – actually depicting in this way political movements fighting for the social rights understood as welfare rights . The labor movement and socialist movement of

5183-419: Was presented before Chief Judge J. Edward Lumbard and Circuit Judges Sterry R. Waterman and Hays. The innovative decision was written by Justice Hays. The main issue presented in this case is whether aesthetic harm can suffice as an injury-in-fact in order to establish standing. The "injury in fact" test requires both an "injury to a cognizable interest" and that "the party seeking review be himself among

5256-433: Was scheduled for closure, NRDC held no position on a proposal to build a transmission line to Quebec to access excess hydropower while arguing, "we certainly would not be on board where [hydropower] gobbles up the space we think should be covered by true renewables". NRDC states the purpose of its work is "safeguard the earth—its people, its plants and animals, and the natural systems on which all life depends," and to "ensure

5329-421: Was the first example of granting standing on the basis of aesthetic or environmental benefits. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals held the following: The licensing order of March 9 and the two orders of May 6 were set aside, and the case was remanded for further Federal Power Commission hearings. The Storm King Decision incorporates 15 years of legal challenges, beginning with the first case in 1965. Below

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