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128-750: After World War I , many Americans took the view that the pre-war naval arms race between the United Kingdom and the German Empire had contributed to the outbreak of the war in 1914. This view led to opposition in the United States to postwar naval spending. After taking office in March 1921, President Warren G. Harding , influenced by pacifist thinking and seeing an opportunity to take advantage of anti-naval sentiment to reduce United States Government spending, invited representatives of

256-645: A blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to

384-592: A grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June,

512-540: A guerrilla warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India , while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of

640-703: A non-profit organization in March 1926, listing as its objectives the "collection, acquisition, and preservation … of manuscripts, relics, books, pictures, and all other things and information pertaining to the history and traditions of the United States Navy and Merchant Marine " for educational and literary purposes and "the diffusion of knowledge respecting such history and traditions, either by publication or otherwise." The foundation held its inaugural meeting on March 23, 1926, during which it elected retired U.S. Navy Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight as its first president. The United States Naval Institute made

768-695: A training ship during his tour. Leaving Alliance , he was assigned in May 1897 to the Columbian Iron Works and Dry Dock Company , which was engaged in ship construction for the U.S. Navy in Baltimore , Maryland . In January 1898, Rodgers took command of the torpedo boat USS  Foote , leading her into combat when the Spanish–American War broke out in April 1898. Foote assisted in

896-408: A change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS  Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to

1024-613: A direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as

1152-528: A fund-raising committee to acquire museum-quality furnishings for Tingey House. Over the following decades, the foundation donated nearly US$ 200,000 for the purchase and repair of furnishings at the house. In 1985, retired Admiral Jerauld Wright , the foundation's director, began a campaign to restore the birthplace of John Paul Jones at Arbigland in Kirkbean , Scotland , creating a “Friends of John Paul Jones” fund-raising group. The group raised $ 50,000 for

1280-471: A gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris. The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911,

1408-646: A museum on the National Mall never came to fruition thanks to the economic hardships of the Great Depression . Retired Admiral Joseph Strauss succeeded Rodgers as president of the Naval Historical Foundation in 1943 and retired Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King succeeded Strauss in 1946. Aided by the foundation's vice president, retired Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz , King led a vigorous fund-raising effort to raise capital for

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1536-714: A naval museum in Washington, D.C. Although health issues forced King to step down from the presidency in 1949, his successor, retired Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy , completed the fund raising effort. The foundation acquired the carriage house at the Decatur House on the northwest corner of Lafayette Square across from the White House , where on May 18, 1950, it opened a small museum, the Truxtun-Decatur Naval Museum , which operated for

1664-651: A passion for the Navy Department Library, which became part of the Naval Historical Center and in recognition of his support for the library its reading room was dedicated in his honor. In the fall of 1979 the expanded spring and fall newsletter was renamed Pull Together . The foundation continued to publish Pull Together until its dissolution in 2022. In 1980, DeLany hired retired U.S. Navy Captain David A. Long, whose last Navy tour

1792-548: A possibility. This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis . German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy , that could compete with the British Royal Navy . This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan , who argued that possession of

1920-834: A revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule , a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu , the Secretary of State for India . In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and

2048-589: A series of seven films on the early history of the U.S. Navy that the foundation designed to educate America's youth about naval history and the relationship of sea power to the national welfare of the United States. The foundation made the seven films — entitled The War of Independence, 1775-1783 , Naval War with France and Tripoli , The War of 1812 , World Wide Operations in Peace and War (1815-1869) , Civil War, Part I , Civil War, Part II , and Navy Decline,

2176-516: A significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League , an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro , and Greece . The League quickly overran most of

2304-650: A strong navy. Among them was U.S. Navy Captain Dudley W. Knox , who recognized that publicizing American naval history would help to stimulate interest among the American public in fielding a strong navy. Writing in the January 1926 edition of the United States Naval Institute magazine Proceedings , he pointed out that much of the history of the U.S. Navy was hidden in various archives around

2432-478: A war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon. Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under

2560-402: A weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria . Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as

2688-455: A whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans. The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot , lice , typhus , trench fever , and the ' Spanish flu '. At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across

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2816-508: Is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by

2944-478: The International Journal of Naval History , issuing a weekly "Thursday's Tidings" e-letter featuring naval history relevant to current events, and holding "Second Saturday" monthly webinars . After DeMars retired to a chairman emeritus role, retired Admiral William J. Fallon became chairman. Under Fallon, the foundation hosted a symposium in late 2018 to conduct a historical retrospective of

3072-574: The Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as

3200-641: The World War . In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as " the war to end war " and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of

3328-695: The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain , then part of German New Guinea . On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS  Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate , as well as German Treaty ports on

3456-665: The Committee of Jurists on the Laws of War at The Hague in the Netherlands in 1923. Rodgers had a lifelong love of military and naval history . Throughout his life, he consistently showed an interest in actual hands-on testing and physical examination of history. He wrote many articles on various historical subjects, such as the rate of fire of the Welsh longbow , which were published in various military journals and magazines of

3584-847: The First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War , was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers . Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East , as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific , and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare ; the widespread use of artillery , machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and

3712-721: The Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution . Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia,

3840-597: The United States Army War College in Carlisle , Pennsylvania , in 1907–1908. While there, he learned about the "applicability system" or "estimate of the situation," requiring that war planning be developed through a four-step process involving "statement of mission, assessment of enemy forces and intentions, assessment of own forces, and evaluation of possible courses of action." He suggested to Raymond P. Rodgers , who served as President of

3968-673: The United States Asiatic Fleet , a position he held until 1 September 1919. In 1920, he returned to the U.S. Navy ' s General Board in Washington, D.C., to serve as its Senior Member, the position he held until his retirement in 1924. During this tour, he also served on the Advisory Commission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armaments in 1921–1922, and as a technical adviser to

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4096-539: The United States Department of the Navy . Rodgers ' most enduring legacy are two classic works on naval warfare he wrote in retirement, titled Greek and Roman Naval Warfare: A Study of Strategy, Tactics and Ship Design from Salamis (480 B.C.) to Actium , published in 1937, and Naval Warfare Under Oars, 4th to 16th Centuries: A Study of Strategy, Tactics and Ship Design , published in 1939. While

4224-714: The United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution , and Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in

4352-485: The Vietnam War and also had served as Deputy Director of the Naval Historical Center, replaced Long as executive director in 1988. During the 1990s, the foundation's staff expanded when, using a US$ 20,000 grant provided by Ambassador William H. G. FitzGerald , it hired graduate student David Winkler to conduct oral history work. Winkler later joined the staff to serve as the foundation's historian . In 1998,

4480-561: The Washington Navy Yard shooting in September 2013, which resulted in limited public access to the museum due to security changes at the navy yard. In 2008, Holloway left the presidency, serving thereafter as chairman emeritus until he died in September 2019. Retired Admiral Bruce DeMars succeeded Holloway as president and then chairman of the foundation, serving in these capacities for a combined 28 years. Under DeMars,

4608-526: The blockade of Cuba , patrolling the coast closely, and fought the first battle of the war on 23 or 25 April 1898 (sources vary), when she approached the harbor at Cárdenas , Cuba, to scout shipping and exchanged fire with the Spanish Navy gunboat Ligera . Spanish sources claim that Foote was badly damaged and forced to withdraw, but U.S. sources state that she simply withdrew. Foote also bombarded Morro Island on 29 April 1898, and during

4736-487: The hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at

4864-460: The protected cruiser USS  Atlanta from 1889 to 1892, being promoted to lieutenant, junior grade , on 4 May 1889 while aboard Atlanta . From December 1892 until 1895, he served at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., and was promoted to lieutenant in February 1894. In October 1895, Rodgers reported for duty aboard the screw gunboat USS  Alliance , which operated as

4992-764: The tank . After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the " Race to the Sea ". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held

5120-625: The "Gray Book," provided a chronology of U.S. Navy history from its beginnings through the 2003 invasion of Iraq and also sold well. During the first decade of the 21st century the foundation raised money to complete a Cold War Gallery for the National Museum of the United States Navy in Building 70 at the Washington Navy Yard. Several galleries were completed before the foundation ended its fundraising campaign following

5248-588: The 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply. Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross

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5376-431: The 1879 Dual Alliance , which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty , a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia

5504-441: The 1913 Treaty of London , which had created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War , when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from

5632-409: The Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara ; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In 1915,

5760-593: The Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in

5888-493: The Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the " powder keg of Europe ". On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , visited Sarajevo ,

6016-404: The Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive , which brought stabilisation of

6144-410: The Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao . After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS  Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. Some of the first clashes of

6272-548: The German High Seas Fleet was confined to port. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond

6400-465: The German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in

6528-462: The German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium , then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen , head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke

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6656-426: The Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army , which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As

6784-565: The Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi . Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed

6912-413: The Naval Historical Foundation website active, and announced that it "will remain so until further notice." Keeping the website active allowed readers to maintain access to past issues of Pull Together and "Thursday Tidings", as well as to other content such as the Naval History Book Reviews. The National Maritime Historical Society also carried on aspects of the Naval Historical Foundation's legacy. In

7040-487: The Naval War College from 1909 to 1911, that the Navy adopt a similar approach. Raymond P. Rodgers introduced it into war planning at the college during his presidency, and it has remained a part of Navy war planning ever since. In 1909, William Ledyard Rodgers assumed command of the battleship USS  Georgia . He then relieved Raymond P. Rodgers as President of the Naval War College on 20 November 1911, serving as president until 15 December 1913. He next took command of

7168-420: The Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt . In 1932, the foundation initiated a publication program with a publication about the United States Revenue-Marine (renamed the United States Revenue Cutter Service in 1894 and one of the ancestors of the United States Coast Guard ) entitled The Early History of the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service (1789-1849) . After the opening of the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich in

7296-405: The New Navy and War with Spain (1863-1898) — with the assistance and cooperation of the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Naval Personnel and distributed them via the American Film Service . The foundation later added two more films to the series. The nine-film program remained in use into the 1980s and was used widely: In 1977, for example, an estimated 45,000 students in 24 U.S. states saw at least one of

7424-703: The Ottoman Empire , which disturbed the long-standing balance of power in Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered by industrialisation and imperialism . Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France , who had an alliance . The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium , whose neutrality it guaranteed, and

7552-545: The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September , and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917,

7680-449: The Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia . The Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through

7808-549: The Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany

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7936-429: The Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against

8064-410: The U.S. Navy's General Military Training program. The foundation also published two coffee table books . The first, The Navy , a narrative treatment of American naval history first published in 2000 and nicknamed the "White Book," by 2022 had undergone several reprints sold over 400,000 copies, and remained in high demand. The second, U.S. Navy, A Complete History , first published in 2003 and nicknamed

8192-478: The United Kingdom in 1937, the Naval Historical Foundation, by then under its second president, retired Vice Admiral William L. Rodgers , petitioned the regents of the Smithsonian Institution for a similar national naval museum on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The Smithsonian turned the foundation down, but the foundation continued to pursue the concept of the museum. Despite the foundation's close association with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, its dream of

8320-410: The United States where most Americans had no access to it. Noting that the Naval Historical Society based in New York City was in decline, Knox called for its replacement with a new organization that would find materials of interest in U.S. naval and maritime history and publicize them. Knox's vision led to the creation of the Naval Historical Foundation. It was incorporated in Washington, D.C. , as

8448-555: The United States, the United Kingdom, the Empire of Japan , France , and the Kingdom of Italy to a naval arms control conference in Washington, D.C. The Washington Naval Conference , held from November 1921 to February 1922, resulted in the Washington Naval Treaty , under which the five countries agreed to a moratorium on the construction of new capital ships and restrictions on the total tonnage of their fleets. United States Navy sea power advocates reacted to these developments by seeking ways to invigorate American support for

8576-455: The West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat , and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000. German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening

8704-430: The Younger . Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine , which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII . However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as

8832-407: The aftermath of the foundation's dissolution, the society continued "Thursday Tidings" as a weekly newsletter, renaming it "Tuesday Tidings." "Tuesday Tidings" also hosts new issues of the International Journal of Naval History . In 2013, the Naval Historical Foundation established the Commodore Dudley W. Knox Naval History Lifetime Achievement Award , often referred to as the Knox Medal , to honor

8960-446: The aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced

9088-407: The attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania . The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo . Montenegro covered

9216-543: The best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. On 23   July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25   July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in

9344-536: The border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3   August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which

9472-655: The campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army. Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan , 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier,

9600-649: The capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ( Bosnian Serbs ) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community), from the movement known as Young Bosnia , took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw

9728-466: The chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne , Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already." On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa ). On 11 September,

9856-520: The cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS  Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses,

9984-522: The creation of new independent states, including Poland , Finland , the Baltic states , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia . The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before World War II , the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply

10112-449: The creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire , machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery , which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and

10240-965: The crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna". Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as

10368-572: The depth and breadth of its history offerings, providing greater visibility and stature to the subject." It also assumed the responsibility for awarding the annual Knox Medal. Under the merger agreement, all Naval Historical Foundation members became U.S. Naval Institute members, and the U.S. Naval Institute agreed to fulfill their memberships under its own auspices. As U.S. Naval Institute members, former Naval Historical Foundation members who subscribed to Pull Together began to receive Naval History magazine instead. The U.S. Naval Institute also kept

10496-695: The expansion of the French colonial empire . In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors , which included Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans , an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed

10624-735: The fall of 1979, was the official newsletter of the Naval Historical Foundation. Its name was taken from the Queenstown Association , a veterans group who served in Ireland with the U.S. Navy or the Royal Navy during World War I. Articles covered all aspects of American naval history, including narrative and eyewitness accounts of naval battles and operations, biographical studies, announcements of upcoming events, and book notices and reviews. The editorial staff welcomed article submissions. World War I World War I or

10752-409: The films. In 1961, toward the end of Knox's presidency, the foundation's members approved and adopted new by-laws that provided for a board of directors and a chairman. Retired Admiral Robert B. Carney became the foundation's first chairman in 1961 and served in that capacity until 1981. Knox died in 1961, and retired Vice Admiral John F. Shafroth Jr. assumed the presidency. During his tenure

10880-456: The first donation to the foundation, a US$ 1,000 donation which the foundation used to develop a trust fund for its activities. The foundation began searching for items of historical interest such as papers, artifacts, and illustrations. Its membership soon grew to include such notable figures as Vice Admiral William S. Sims , who had served as Commander-in-Chief of U.S. Naval Forces in Europe during World War I, and former Assistant Secretary of

11008-400: The first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun , lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but

11136-578: The former carriage house that had housed it was converted into a conference center. Its holdings were transferred to the Navy Memorial Museum and the Naval Historical Center. Thereafter, the foundation provided direct support to the Navy Memorial Museum, which eventually was renamed the National Museum of the United States Navy . In 1983, the foundation's Pilot House Gift Shop opened, and a portion of its profits went toward support for

11264-519: The former work focuses on the ancient Greek and Roman world of the Mediterranean Sea , the latter work also contains chapters on such rare topics as Viking and medieval naval warfare. Rodgers was primarily a military historian who described battles and tactics , but his works also derive principles of naval warfare in the ancient and medieval worlds, and contain some detailed descriptions of archeological finds and commentary on

11392-799: The foundation created the Commodore Dudley W. Knox Naval History Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to historians who contributed outstanding naval historical scholarship, mentorship for future historians, and leadership in the field of naval history and heritage, as well as the Vice Admiral Dunn NROTC Essay Contest for midshipmen taking part in Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps programs at American universities. The foundation also increased its electronic outreach efforts by publishing Naval History Book Reviews, supporting

11520-501: The foundation decided that it could better inform the American public about U.S. Navy history by supporting the Navy Memorial Museum – whose creation Burke had championed as an American equivalent of European naval museums – at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., than by continuing to operate the Truxtun-Decatur Naval Museum. Accordingly, the Truxtun-Decatur Naval Museum closed in the early 1980s and

11648-557: The foundation expanded its publication programs. He initiated a spring and fall newsletter to the membership. In 1963, an article on naval history was inserted into the newsletter, and after that it began to cover history topics. The foundation also began to publish a series of monographs devoted to historical subjects too large for the newsletter. Early titles in the series included I Was a Yeoman F in 1967, The Incredible Alaska Overland Rescue in 1968, and The Enlistment, Training, and Organization of Crews for Our Navy Ships in 1972. Over

11776-661: The foundation formally donated the documents maintained for it at the Library of Congress to the United States. The documents are available in the Library's Manuscript Division Reading room. Holloway replaced the 95-year-old Elliott Strauss as chairman in 1998, and retired Vice Admiral Robert F. Dunn, a former Chief of Naval Aviation and Naval Reserve, replaced Holloway as president. By 1999, another former Deputy Director of Naval History, Captain Charles T. Creekman, took over from Coskey as executive director. Under this leadership group,

11904-469: The foundation used the services of volunteers to expand its oral history program and initiated a "Naval Heritage Speakers" program in which experts on naval history topics addressed audiences around the United States. The foundation also sponsored numerous symposia and conferences on historical topics in partnership with other organizations. The foundation produced the "U.S. Navy Heritage Mini-Series," consisting of short history videos that were incorporated into

12032-492: The foundation's financial viability. Declining revenue forced Fallon to approach the United States Naval Institute early in 2022 to discuss a merger. Months of negotiations ensued, and in mid-November 2022 the foundation's leadership presented its membership with a merger proposal and asked it to approve of the merger in a vote on December 7, 2022. Vigorous opposition to the merger proposal existed among

12160-595: The front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive , after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole , and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold

12288-542: The globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS ; Emden , part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao , which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron

12416-549: The high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for

12544-461: The interdependence of the civilian nuclear power industry and the U.S. Navy's nuclear reactor program. The symposium highlighted the decline of U.S. nuclear power industry in recent decades. When the COVID-19 pandemic struck the United States in 2020, it became impossible for the Naval Historical Foundation to host events at the National Museum of the United States Navy, with a severe impact on

12672-435: The introductions of tanks and aircraft . World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded , plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide . The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic. The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of

12800-470: The investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade . Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as

12928-567: The lecture series, which continued until 1967. When Leahy took office, the foundation's growing manuscript collection was held at a warehouse south of Washington, D.C., in Fort Washington , Maryland . Leahy finalized arrangements with the Library of Congress to hold and provide custodial care for the foundation's manuscripts. Leahy died in 1959, and Dudley W. Knox, long the foundation's secretary, took over as president. Knox initiated

13056-593: The line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. William Ledyard Rodgers William Ledyard Rodgers (February 4, 1860 – May 7, 1944) was a vice admiral of the United States Navy . His career included service in the Spanish–American War and World War I , and a tour as President of the Naval War College . Rodgers was also a noted historian on military and naval topics, particularly relating to ancient naval warfare. He

13184-490: The members, but ultimately the membership voted in favor of the merger. Under the terms of the merger agreement, the Naval Historical Foundation was dissolved on December 31, 2022. In January 2023, the United States Naval Institute announced that it intended to perpetuate the Naval Historical Foundation's legacy and mission as part of its own future activities. It assumed stewardship of several Naval Historical Foundation naval history programs and activities and planned to "enhance

13312-488: The memory of the naval historian Commodore Dudley W. Knox and to recognize the lifetime achievements of historians of the United States Navy. The foundation awarded the Knox Medal annually from 2013 through 2017 and from 2019 through 2022. After the foundation's dissolution at the end of 2022, the United States Naval Institute assumed the responsibility for awarding the Knox Medal. Pull Together , first published in

13440-675: The museum. It later was renamed the Navy Museum Store. In 1977, One Observatory Circle at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., which had served as the home of the Chief of Naval Operations, was reassigned for use by the Vice President of the United States . Tingey House at the Washington Navy Yard became the new CNO's home. Under Burke and Holloway, the foundation organized

13568-553: The new battleship USS  Delaware , then in 1915 became a member of the General Board of the United States Navy in Washington, D.C. In 1916, Rodgers was promoted to rear admiral and given command of the United States Atlantic Fleet ' s Training and Service Force , the command he continued to hold after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. In this capacity, he oversaw

13696-464: The next three decades, the foundation published nearly three dozen monographs. Shafroth died in 1967 and retired Vice Admiral Walter S. DeLany became president. During his presidency, the U.S. Navy took action to consolidate many of its history-related entities into the Naval Historical Center, which officially opened in 1975 and later became the Naval History and Heritage Command . DeLany had

13824-487: The next three decades. Its first exhibit was entitled “ Commodore Thomas Truxtun and Stephen Decatur and the Navy of their Times,” and shortly after that naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison gave a talk at the museum on “The Battle of Midway .” Morison's talk was so successful that under Leahy the foundation sponsored a lecture series in the Washington, D.C., area on naval history topics for foundation members and their guests. The Smithsonian Institution later cosponsored

13952-465: The ocean, even to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of

14080-738: The protection of the " cruiser rules ", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys , escorted by destroyers . This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after

14208-575: The rank of commander before dying in a plane crash in 1926. Born on 4 February 1860 in Washington, D.C. , the son of John Rodgers and Ann Elizabeth Hodge Rodgers, William Ledyard Rodgers entered the United States Naval Academy on 11 June 1874 and graduated in 1878. He served aboard the steamer USS  Pensacola from 1878 to 1879 and at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., from 1880 to 1881, and

14336-518: The restoration project and over the ensuing decades urged support for the birthplace as a U.S. naval heritage site. In 1985, retired Rear Admiral Elliott B. Strauss , the son of Admiral Joseph Strauss, succeeded Burke to become the third chairman of the foundation, presiding over the Board of Directors until 1998. Captain Kenneth Coskey, who had spent over six years as a prisoner of war during

14464-586: The summer carried mail, dispatches, and supplies from Key West , Florida , to the blockading squadron off Cuba until the end of the war in August 1898. Rodgers returned to duty at the Washington Navy Yard on 3 November 1898. On 15 May 1900, he reported aboard the screw sloop-of-war USS  Lancaster , which was in service with the Training Squadron , and was aboard her until 1901, being promoted to lieutenant commander on 19 February 1901. He

14592-469: The term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power , known as the Concert of Europe . After 1848, this

14720-691: The threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It

14848-624: The time, and in 1907 published a book titled A Study of Attacks Upon Fortified Harbors (Artillery Notes) , published by Artillery School Press. In retirement, Rodgers continued to pursue his passion for military and naval history. He wrote the introduction to Captain Dudley W. Knox ' s classic A History of the United States Navy , published in 1936. He served as president of the Naval Historical Foundation from 1927 to 1943, and donated much of his father ' s book collection as well as volumes of his own collection to

14976-535: The training of Atlantic Fleet personnel and the repair and replenishment of its ships through the end of the war in November 1918, using first the repair ship USS  Vestal and later the store ship USS  Supply as his flagship . He received the Navy Cross for superior performance in this position. In December 1918, Rodgers was promoted to vice admiral and on 7 December 1918 he took command of

15104-645: The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles , by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in

15232-601: The war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought

15360-418: The west , which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home , Kaiser Wilhelm   II abdicated on 9 November, and

15488-473: Was as Deputy Directory of Naval History at the Naval Historical Center, to serve as the foundation's first executive director, responsible for carrying out daily operational tasks for the organization. DeLany died in 1980, and a former Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), retired Admiral James L. Holloway III , took over the presidency. Carney retired in 1981, and another former CNO, retired Admiral Arleigh Burke , replaced him as chairman. Under Burke and Holloway,

15616-551: Was assigned to the battleship USS  Kentucky before moving on to a tour on the Naval War College staff at Newport , Rhode Island . After that, he was executive officer of the battleship USS  Wisconsin in the United States Asiatic Fleet before becoming commanding officer of the Asiatic Fleet gunboat USS  Wilmington in 1906. Relinquishing command of Wilmington , Rodgers attended

15744-403: Was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation , the decline of the Ottoman Empire , New Imperialism , and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck . Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire . Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat, but by the early 1890s, this had switched to

15872-587: Was promoted to midshipman on 4 June 1880. He served aboard the corvette USS  Quinnebaug on the European Station from 1881 to 1884 and was promoted to ensign on 1 April 1882. Rodgers was on special duty at the United States Department of the Navy in Washington, D.C., from 1884 to 1885, then received instruction in torpedo service during 1886. He was assigned to the Office of Naval Intelligence from 1886 to 1888, then to special duty aboard

16000-654: Was refused. Early on the morning of 4   August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London . Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Beginning on 12 August,

16128-667: Was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra , these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany . This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law. Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of

16256-781: Was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II . The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor , Leo von Caprivi . This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became

16384-612: Was the third generation in a well-known family of able naval officers. He was the son of Rear Admiral John Rodgers (1812–1882), who fought in the Second Seminole War (1839–1842) and the American Civil War (1861–1865), and the grandson of Commodore John Rodgers (1772–1838), who fought in the War of 1812 (1812–1814). Rodgers ' s nephew, John Rodgers , born in 1881, was a pioneering early aviator, reaching

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