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117-588: The Nazca lines ( / ˈ n ɑː z k ə / , /- k ɑː / ) are a group of over 700 geoglyphs made in the soil of the Nazca Desert in southern Peru . They were created between 500 BC and 500 AD by people making depressions or shallow incisions in the desert floor, removing pebbles and leaving different-colored dirt exposed. There are two major phases of the Nazca lines, Paracas phase , from 400 to 200 BC, and Nazca phase , from 200 BC to 500 AD. In

234-556: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . The high, arid plateau stretches more than 80 km (50 mi) between the towns of Nazca and Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana, approximately 400 km (250 mi) south of Lima . The main PE-1S Panamericana Sur runs parallel to it. The main concentration of designs is in a 10 by 4 km (6 by 2 mi) rectangle, south of the hamlet of San Miguel de la Pascana. In this area,

351-568: A "beta" tier city. Jurisdictionally, the metropolis extends mainly within the province of Lima and in a smaller portion, to the west, within the Constitutional Province of Callao , where the seaport and the Jorge Chávez Airport are located. Both provinces have regional autonomy since 2002. The 2023 census projection indicates that the city of Lima has an estimated population of 10,092,000 inhabitants, making it

468-629: A Swiss art historian specializing in Egypt and the Middle East, published a book in 1983 linking the Nazca Lines to the production of ancient textiles that archeologists have found wrapping mummies of the Paracas culture . He contended that the people may have used the lines and trapezes as giant, primitive looms to fabricate the extremely long strings and wide pieces of textiles typical of

585-595: A human head and is dated to the early period of Nazca culture or earlier. The other, undated, is an animal. The team has been conducting fieldwork there since 2006, and by 2012 has found approximately 100 new geoglyphs . In March 2012, the university announced that it would open a new research center at the site in September 2012, related to a longterm project to study the area for the next 15 years. A June 2019 article in Smithsonian magazine describes recent work by

702-409: A main field azure , with three gold crowns of kings placed in a triangle and above them a gold star that touches the three crowns with its points, and in the orle some gold letters that say: Hoc signum vere regum est (This is the true sign of the kings). Outside the shield are the initials I and K (Ioana and Karolus), which are the names of Queen Joanna and her son Charles V. A star is placed above

819-601: A more dramatic warm-to-cool weather transition in later May or/and earlier June. Situated onshore from the cold ocean waters, rainfall is extremely rare in Lima. The summers, December through April, are sunny, hot, and muggy. Daily temperatures oscillate between lows of 18 to 22 °C (64 to 72 °F) and highs of 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F). Coastal fogs occur in some mornings and high clouds in some afternoons and evenings. Summer sunsets are colorful, known by locals as "cielo de brujas" (Spanish for "sky of witches"), since

936-429: A multi-disciplinary team of Japanese researchers who identified or re-identified some of the birds depicted. They note that birds are the animals most frequently depicted in the Nazca geoglyphs. The team believes that some of the bird images that previous researchers assumed to be indigenous species more closely resemble exotic birds found in non-desert habitats. They speculated that "The reason exotic birds were depicted in

1053-425: A protective layer that shields the lines from winds, thereby preventing erosion . The Nazca used this technique to "draw" several hundred simple, but huge, curvilinear animal and human figures. In total, the earthwork project is huge and complex: the area encompassing the lines is nearly 450 km (170 sq mi), and the largest figures can span nearly 370 m (1,200 ft). Some figures have been measured:

1170-547: A range of purposes including burial sites and funerary customs, aiding in the trapping of migratory animals, and as cleared areas for camps, houses and animal enclosures. Not all geoglyphs are ancient. The Land Art movement created many new geoglyphs as well as other structures; perhaps the most famous example is Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson . Many towns and cities in the Western United States use hillside letters (also known as "mountain monograms") on

1287-399: A reminder to just how fragile these figures are." In 2012, squatters occupied land in the area, damaging a Nazca-era cemetery and allowing their pigs to have access to some of the land. In 2013, machinery used in a limestone quarry was reported to have destroyed a small section of a line, and caused damage to another. In December 2014, a controversy arose involving Greenpeace activity on

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1404-436: A spatial, functional and religious relationship between these geoglyphs and the temples of Cahuachi . In particular, using remote sensing techniques (from satellite to drone based remote sensing), they investigated and found "five groups of geoglyphs, each of them characterized by a specific motif and shape, and associated with a distinct function." They identified a ceremonial one, characterized by meandering motifs. Another

1521-419: A steep slope prone to erosion, explaining why it had not previously been discovered until archaeologists carefully studied the image. Drones are revealing sites for further research. The number of known Nazca geoglyphs amounted to 358 in 2022. Drones now are being used to assist the anthropologists researching the area and are expected to enable them to discover many more. In 2024, a team of archaeologists from

1638-515: A story in which an aircraft landed on Earth, and the local people watched in amazement as "human-like beings with golden, shimmering skins" walked, mined for metals and then flew away in their ship. These ancient astronauts supposedly soon returned where they built landing tracks and then eventually left forever. The amazed Native Americans then considered Nazca a place of pilgrimage and generations of their people built more figures and runways as an invitation for gods to return, but they never did. At

1755-651: A suitable cool climate. Thus, on 6 January 1535, Lima was founded with the name "City of the Kings", named in this way in honor of the epiphany , on territories that had been of the kuraka Taulichusco . The explanation of this name is due to the fact that "around the same time in January, the Spaniards were looking for the place to lay the foundation for the new city, [...] not far from the Pachacámac sanctuary, near

1872-427: A thin layer of water that generally dries up by early afternoon. Winter temperatures vary little between day and night. They range from lows of 14 to 16 °C (57 to 61 °F) and highs of 16 to 19 °C (61 to 66 °F), rarely exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) except in the easternmost districts. Relative humidity is always very high, particularly in the mornings. High humidity produces brief morning fog in

1989-399: A very large group of men. The scholar John Rowe suggested that the valley had a population of about 150,000 during Inca times. Whatever the case, each recorded hunu of Pachacamac had a head town, corresponding to some of the most populated settlements in the valley: Caraguayllo ( Carabayllo ), Maranga, and Surco (or Sulco, also known as the archaeological site Armatambo). ... this valley

2106-557: Is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977 and Alceu Ranzi with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre . Other areas with geoglyphs include Megaliths in the Urals , South Australia ( Marree Man , which is not ancient, but rather a modern work of art, with mysterious origins), Western Australia and parts of the Great Basin Desert in the southwestern United States. Hill figures , turf mazes and

2223-530: Is because its original Inca name is "Talking River" (the Incas spoke a highland variety of Quechua, in which the word for "talker" was pronounced [ˈrimɑq] ). However, the original inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua . Later, as

2340-578: Is created on a slope, so that it can be seen from a distance. Perhaps the most famous geoglyphs are the Nazca lines in Peru . The cultural significance of these geoglyphs for their creators remains unclear, despite many hypotheses. Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest , Brazil, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. Ondemar Dias

2457-619: Is high, rainfall is very low due to strong atmospheric stability. The severely low rainfall impacts the city's water supply, which originates from wells and from rivers that flow from the Andes . Inland districts receive anywhere between 10 and 60 mm (0.4 and 2.4 in) of rainfall per year, which accumulates mainly during the winter. Coastal districts receive only 10 to 30 mm (0.4 to 1.2 in). As previously mentioned, winter precipitation occurs as persistent morning drizzle. These are locally called 'garúa', 'llovizna' or ' camanchacas '. On

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2574-576: Is historically known as "Banner of the City of the Kings of Peru". It is formed by a golden-colored silk canvas and in the center is the embroidered coat of arms of the city. The coat of arms of Lima was granted by the Spanish Crown on 7 December 1537, through a real cédula signed in Valladolid by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and his mother, Queen Joanna of Castile . It is formed by

2691-512: Is located 15 km (9.3 mi) inland at the shore of the Rímac River, a vital resource for the city, since it carries what will become drinking water for its inhabitants and fuels the hydroelectric dams that provide electricity to the area. While no official administrative definition for the city exists, it is usually considered to be composed of the central 30 of 43 districts of Lima Province , corresponding to an urban area centered around

2808-436: Is related to calendrical purpose, as proved by the presence of radial centers aligned along the directions of winter solstice and equinox sunset. As have earlier scholars, the two Italians believe that the geoglyphs were the venues of events linked to the agriculture calendar. These also served to strengthen social cohesion among various groups of pilgrims, sharing common ancestors and religious beliefs. Other theories were that

2925-591: Is the capital and largest city of Peru . It is located in the valleys of the Chillón , Rímac and Lurín Rivers , in the desert zone of the central coastal part of the country, overlooking the Pacific Ocean. The city is considered the political, cultural, financial and commercial center of Peru. Due to its geostrategic importance, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network has categorized it as

3042-595: Is the same group that some believe created the well-known geoglyph known as the Paracas Candelabra . Farther north from the Nazca, Palpas region and along the Peruvian coast are other glyphs from the Chincha culture that have also been discovered. The following are images of some of the Nazca lines. Geoglyph Geoglyphs are generally a type of land art , and sometimes rock art . A hill figure

3159-464: The Dakar Rally , which is visible from satellite imagery. In January 2018, an errant truck driver was arrested but later released for lack of evidence indicating any intent other than a simple error. He had damaged three of the geoglyphs by leaving substantial tire marks across an area of approximately 46 m by 107 m (150 by 350 feet). The Paracas culture is considered by some historians to be

3276-497: The Peruvian coastal plain , within the valleys of the Chillón , Rímac and Lurín rivers. The city slopes gently from the shores of the Pacific Ocean into valleys and mountain slopes located as high as 1,550 meters (5,090 ft) above sea level. Within the city are isolated hills that are not connected to the surrounding hill chains, such as El Agustino, San Cosme, El Pino, La Milla, Muleria and Pro hills. The San Cristobal hill in

3393-689: The Rímac river . However, as had happened with the region, initially called New Castile and later Peru , the City of the Kings soon lost its name in favor of "Lima". Pizarro, with the collaboration of Nicolás de Ribera , Diego de Agüero and Francisco Quintero personally traced the Plaza Mayor and the rest of the city grid, building the Viceroyalty Palace (today transformed into the Government Palace of Peru , which hence retains

3510-642: The Supreme Court of Peru . The Palace of Justice in Lima is seat of the Supreme Court of Justice the highest judicial court in Peru with jurisdiction over the entire territory of Peru. Lima is seat of two of the 28-second highest or Superior Courts of Justice . The first and oldest Superior Court in Lima is the Superior Court of Justice, belonging to the Judicial District and . Due to

3627-734: The Wari Empire during the height of its imperial expansion. It is during this time that the ceremonial center of Cajamarquilla was built. As Wari importance declined, local cultures regained autonomy, highlighting the Chancay culture . Later, in the 15th century, these territories were incorporated into the Inca Empire . From this time we can find a great variety of huacas throughout the city, some of which are under investigation. The most important or well-known huacas are those of Huallamarca , Pucllana , and Mateo Salado, all located in

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3744-521: The thirty most populated urban agglomerations in the world . The city is marked by severe urban segregation between the poor pueblos jóvenes , populated in large part by immigrants from the Andean highlands, and wealthy neighbourhoods. From 1985 onwards, barriers known as "walls of shame" run across much of the city separating rich areas from the poor. Lima was named by natives in the agricultural region known by native Peruvians as Limaq . It became

3861-413: The 1940s, Lima started a period of rapid growth spurred by migration from the Andean region, as rural people sought opportunities for work and education. The population, estimated at 600,000 in 1940, reached 1.9 million by 1960 and 4.8 million by 1980. At the start of this period, the urban area was confined to a triangular area bounded by the city's historic center , Callao and Chorrillos ; in

3978-421: The 1969 hypothesis of Erich von Däniken , who suggested that " ancient astronauts " had constructed these works. With careful planning and simple technologies, Nickell proved that a small team of people could recreate even the largest figures within days, without any aerial assistance. Scientific American characterized Nickell's work as "remarkable in its exactness" when compared to the existing lines. Most of

4095-496: The 21st century, several hundred new figures had been found with the use of drones, and archaeologists believe that there are more to be found. Most lines run straight across the landscape, but there are also figurative designs of animals and plants. The combined length of all the lines is more than 1,300 km (800 mi), and the group covers an area of about 50 km (19 sq mi). The lines are typically 10 to 15 cm (4–6 in) deep. They were made by removing

4212-615: The Americas and elsewhere constructed earthworks that combined such astronomical sighting with their religious cosmology, as did the late Mississippian culture at Cahokia and other sites in present-day United States. Another example is Stonehenge in England. Newgrange in Ireland has tombs that are oriented to admit light at the winter solstice. Gerald Hawkins and Anthony Aveni , experts in archaeoastronomy , concluded in 1990 that

4329-790: The Central Market, the General Slaughterhouse, the Mental Asylum, the Penitentiary and the Hospital Dos de Mayo. There were also improvements in communications; in 1850 a railway line between Lima and Callao was completed and in 1870 an iron bridge was inaugurated over the Rímac River, baptized as Puente Balta. In 1872 the colonial City Walls were demolished by the US engineer Henry Meiggs under contract with

4446-473: The Gods and Chariots of the Gods? were considered to not have any intellectual credibility or literary merit. Before Von Däniken's work, other authors had presented ideas of extraterrestrial contact with ancient humans, but he failed to credit these authors, even when making the same claims and also using identical or similar evidence. Nevertheless, Von Däniken's books drew in thousands of visitors and believers to

4563-473: The Japanese University of Yamagata’s Nazca Institute , in collaboration with IBM Research , used artificial intelligence (AI) to discover 303 previously unknown geoglyphs depicting parrots, cats, monkeys, killer whales, and even decapitated heads near the Nazca Lines in Peru. The field survey took place between September 2022 and February 2023 and was conducted on foot for ground truthing under

4680-577: The Lima area was once called Itchyma , after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century, a famous oracle in the Rímac Valley had come to be known by visitors as Limaq ( Limaq , pronounced [ˈli.mɑq] , which means "talker" or "speaker" in the coastal Quechua that was the area's primary language before the Spanish arrival). This oracle

4797-617: The Old Men " in Arabia , "stone-built structures that are far more numerous than (the) Nazca Lines, far more extensive in the area that they cover, and far older," have been described as geoglyphs by Amelia Sparavigna, a physics professor at Politecnico di Torino in Italy. The use of this term to describe these features is probably inaccurate, as recent research has shown that most were not constructed primarily as art, but were rather built to serve

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4914-639: The Peruvian government, in anticipation of further urban growth in the future. However, this period of economic expansion also widened the gap between rich and poor, producing widespread social unrest. During the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), the Chilean army occupied Lima after defeating Peruvian troops and reserves in the battles of San Juan and Miraflores . The city suffered from the invaders, who looted museums, public libraries and educational institutions. At

5031-555: The Rímac District, which lies directly north of the downtown area, is the local extreme of an Andean hill outgrowth. Metropolitan Lima covers 2,672.28 km (1,031.77 sq mi), of which 825.88 km (318.87 sq mi) (31%) comprise the actual city and 1,846.40 km (712.90 sq mi) (69%) the city outskirts. The urban area extends around 60 km (37 mi) from north to south and around 30 km (19 mi) from west to east. The city center

5148-574: The South Pacific anticyclone. Lima's climate (like most of coastal Peru) gets severely disrupted in El Niño events. Coastal waters usually average around 17–19 °C (63–66 °F), but get much warmer (as in 1998 when the water reached 26 °C (79 °F)). Air temperatures rise accordingly. Lima is the capital city of the Republic of Peru and Lima Province . As such, it is home to

5265-566: The Spanish conquered their empire . The Spanish Crown named Francisco Pizarro governor of the lands he had conquered. Pizarro decided to found the capital in the Rímac river valley, after a failed attempt to establish it in Jauja . He considered that Lima was strategically located, close to a favorable coast for the construction of a port but prudently far from it in order to prevent attacks by pirates and foreign powers, on fertile lands and with

5382-582: The Spanish. The army arrived personally led by Contarhuancho (Kuntur-Wanchu), a secondary wife of the deceased Emperor Wayna Qhapaq and now a respected kuraka of half the province of Huaylas, the Hanan Huaylas or Upper Huaylas moiety. Contarhuancho came to Lima after receiving a plea for help in a quipu message from her daughter, the Huaylas-Inca princess Doña Inés Huaylas Yupanqui . In the following years, Lima gained prestige by being designated

5499-409: The area in mid-February 2007, Mario Olaechea Aquije, archaeological resident from Peru's National Institute of Culture , and a team of specialists surveyed the area. He said, "[T]he mudslides and heavy rains did not appear to have caused any significant damage to the Nazca Lines". He noted that the nearby Southern Pan-American Highway did suffer damage, and "the damage done to the roads should serve as

5616-515: The area. According to his theory, the figurative patterns (smaller and less common) were meant only for ritualistic purposes. This theory is not widely accepted, although scholars have noted similarities in patterns between the textiles and the Nazca Lines. They interpret these similarities as arising from the common culture. The first systematic field study of the geoglyphs was made by Markus Reindel and Johny Cuadrado Isla. Since 1996, they have documented and excavated more than 650 sites. They compared

5733-400: The availability of water, which directly related to the success and productivity of crops. He interpreted the lines as sacred paths leading to places where these deities could be worshiped. The figures were symbols representing animals and objects meant to invoke the aid of the deities in supplying water. The precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remain unknown. Henri Stierlin ,

5850-613: The capital and most important city in the Viceroyalty of Peru . Following the Peruvian War of Independence , it became the capital of the Republic of Peru (República del Perú). Around one-third of the national population now lives in its metropolitan area . In October 2013, Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games ; these games were held at venues in and around Lima, and were the largest sporting event ever hosted by

5967-467: The capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru and the seat of a Real Audiencia in 1543. Since the location of the coastal city was conditioned by the ease of communications with Spain , a close bond with the port of Callao was soon established. For the next century, it prospered as the center of an extensive trade network that integrated the viceroyalty with the Americas , Europe , and East Asia . But

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6084-726: The cause of independence. The greatest political-economic impact that the city experienced at that time occurred with the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776, which changed the course and orientations imposed by the new mercantile traffic. Among the buildings built during this period there is the Coliseo de Gallos, the Acho Bullring and the General Cemetery. The first two were erected to regulate these popular activities, centralizing them in one place, while

6201-405: The cemetery put an end to the practice of burying the dead in churches, considered unhealthy by public authorities. A combined expedition of Argentine and Chilean independence fighters led by General Don José de San Martín landed in southern Lima in 1820, but did not attack the city. Faced with a naval blockade and guerrilla action on the mainland, Viceroy José de la Serna was forced to evacuate

6318-568: The city in July 1821 to save the Royalist army . Fearing a popular uprising and lacking the means to impose the order, the City Council invited San Martín to enter the city, signing a Declaration of Independence at his request. Proclaimed the independence of Peru in 1821 by General San Martín , Lima became the capital of the new Republic of Peru . Thus, it was the seat of the government of

6435-519: The city is articulated around its neighborhoods. Another threat was the presence of pirates and corsairs in the Pacific Ocean , which motivated the construction of the Walls of Lima between 1684 and 1687. The 1687 earthquake marked a turning point in the history of Lima , since it coincided with a recession in trade due to economic competition with other cities such as Buenos Aires . With

6552-410: The city was not without its dangers; violent earthquakes destroyed a large part of it between 1586 and 1687, leading to a great deal of construction activity. It is then when aqueducts , starlings and retaining walls appear before the flooding of the rivers, the bridge over the Rímac is finished, the cathedral is built, and numerous hospitals, convents and monasteries are built. Then we can see that

6669-493: The colonial period. In addition to Aymara and Quechua, the inhabitants of the northern part of the valley, specifically in the hunu of Carabayllo, spoke an additional language believed to be Quingnam . Regarding the pre-Hispanic settlement of Lima, it is recorded that this part of the valley, near the Rimac river, was administered by a curaca, or local lord, named Taulichusco. He was a former yana , or servant, of Mama Vilo, one of

6786-454: The country's economic stagnation and political disorder paralyzed its urban development. This situation was reversed in the 1850s, when the growing public and private income derived from the export of guano allowed a rapid expansion of the city. In the following twenty years, the State financed the construction of large public buildings to replace the old viceregal establishments, among these are

6903-1029: The country. It also hosted the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Meetings of 2008 and 2016, the Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group in October 2015, the United Nations Climate Change Conference in December 2014, and the Miss Universe 1982 contest. In November 2024, it hosted the APEC summit for the third time. According to early Spanish articles,

7020-467: The creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717, the political demarcations were reorganized, and Lima only lost some territories that actually already enjoyed their autonomy. In 1746 a strong earthquake severely damaged the city and destroyed Callao , forcing a massive reconstruction effort by Viceroy José Antonio Manso de Velasco . In the second half of the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas about public health and social control influenced

7137-467: The criteria for selecting the lines she chose to measure, nor did she pay much attention to the archaeological data Clarkson and Silverman had unearthed. Her case did little justice to other information about the coastal cultures, save applying, with subtle contortions, Urton's representations of constellations from the highlands. As historian Jacquetta Hawkes might ask: was she getting the pampa she desired? Swiss pseudoscientific writer Erich von Däniken

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7254-412: The development of the city. During this period, the Peruvian capital was affected by the Bourbon reforms as it lost its monopoly on foreign trade and its control over the important mining region of Upper Peru . This economic weakening led the elite of the city to depend on the positions granted by the viceregal government and the Church , which contributed to keeping them more linked to the Crown than to

7371-622: The early summer and a usually persistent low cloud deck during the winter (generally develops in late May and persists until mid-November or even early December). The predominantly onshore flow makes the Lima area one of the cloudiest among the entire Peruvian coast. Lima has only 1284 hours of sunshine a year, 27.9 hours in August and 183 hours in April, which is exceptionally little for its latitude. By comparison, London has an average of 1653 hours, and Moscow 1731. Winter cloudiness prompts locals to seek sunshine in Andean valleys above 500 meters (1,600 ft) above sea level . While relative humidity

7488-499: The evidence was insufficient to support such an astronomical explanation. Maria Reiche asserted that some or all of the figures represented constellations . By 1998, Phyllis B. Pitluga, a protégé of Reiche and senior astronomer at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, had concluded that the animal figures were "representations of heavenly shapes." According to The New York Times , Pitluga "contends they are not shapes of constellations, but of what might be called counter constellations ,

7605-406: The exponential growth of the capital's population and the consequent urban expansion. The new populations were settling on land near the center which was used as an agricultural area. The current districts of Lince , La Victoria to the south were populated; Breña and Pueblo Libre to the west; El Agustino , Ate and San Juan de Lurigancho to the east and San Martín de Porres and Comas to

7722-426: The following decades settlements spread to the north, beyond the Rímac River, to the east, along the Central Highway and to the south. The new migrants, at first confined to slums in downtown Lima, led this expansion through large-scale land invasions, which evolved into shanty towns, known as pueblos jóvenes . The urban area covers about 800 km (310 sq mi). It is located on mostly flat terrain in

7839-399: The geoglyphs instead of indigenous birds is closely related to the purpose of the etching process." The discovery of 143 new geoglyphs on the Nazca Pampa and in the surrounding area was announced in 2019 by Yamagata University and IBM Japan . One of these was found by using machine learning-based methods. Lines forming the shape of a cat were discovered on a hill in 2020. The figure is on

7956-406: The geometric lines could indicate water flow or irrigation schemes, or be a part of rituals to "summon" water. The spiders, birds, and plants may be fertility symbols. It also has been theorized that the lines could act as an astronomical calendar . Phyllis Pitluga, senior astronomer at the Adler Planetarium and a protégé of Reiche, performed computer-aided studies of star alignments. She asserted

8073-510: The giant spider figure is an anamorphic diagram of the constellation Orion . She further suggested that three of the straight lines leading to the figure were used to track the changing declinations of the three stars of Orion's Belt . In a critique of her analysis, Dr. Anthony F. Aveni noted she did not account for the other 12 lines of the figure. He commented generally on her conclusions, saying: I really had trouble finding good evidence to back up what she contended. Pitluga never laid out

8190-438: The ground at the end of some lines, which supports this theory. One such stake was carbon-dated and was the basis for establishing the age of the design complex. Joe Nickell , an American investigator of the paranormal, religious artifacts, and folk mysteries, reproduced the figures in the early twenty-first century by using the same tools and technology that would have been available to the Nazca people. In so doing, he refuted

8307-549: The hills above their locations. Contemporary Australian sculptor Andrew Rogers has created geoglyphs around the world called "The Rhythms of Life". You Yangs Regional Park is the home of a geoglyph constructed by Rogers in recognition of the indigenous people of the area. It depicts Bunjil , a mythical creature in the culture of the local Wautharong Aboriginal people . Geoglyphic texts and images are common in Central and Inner Asia but there has been little systematic study of their origins and spread. More recent figures in

8424-474: The historic Cercado de Lima district. The city is the core of the Lima Metro Area , one of the ten largest metro areas in the Americas . Lima is the world's third largest desert city, after Karachi , Pakistan, and Cairo , Egypt. Lima has a mild climate, despite its location in the tropics and in a desert . Lima's proximity to the waters of the Pacific Ocean leads to intense maritime moderation of

8541-580: The horizon at the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. Kosok began to study how the lines might have been created, as well as to try to determine their purpose. He was joined by archaeologist Richard P. Schaedel from the United States, and Maria Reiche , a German mathematician and archaeologist from Lima , to try to determine the purpose of the Nazca Lines. They proposed that the figures were designed as astronomical markers on

8658-450: The horizon to show where the sun and other celestial bodies rose on significant dates. Archaeologists, historians, and mathematicians have all tried to determine the purpose of the lines. Determining how they were made has been easier than determining why they were made. Scholars have theorized that the Nazca people could have used simple tools and surveying equipment to construct the lines. Archaeological surveys have found wooden stakes in

8775-418: The hummingbird is 93 m (305 ft) long, the condor is 134 m (440 ft), the monkey is 93 by 58 m (305 by 190 ft), and the spider is 47 m (154 ft). The very dry, windless, and constant climate of the Nazca region has preserved the lines well. The discovery of two new small figures was announced in early 2011 by a Japanese team from Yamagata University . One of these resembles

8892-626: The iconography of the lines to ceramics of the cultures. As archeologists, they believe that the figurative motifs of geoglyphs can be dated to having been made between 600 and 200 BC. Based on the results of geophysical investigations and the observation of geological faults, David Johnson argued that some geoglyphs followed the paths of aquifers from which aqueducts (or puquios ) collected water. Nicola Masini and Giuseppe Orefici have conducted research in Pampa de Atarco, about 10 km (6 mi) south of Pampa de Nasca, which they believe reveals

9009-500: The irregularly-shaped dark patches within the twinkling expanse of the Milky Way ." Anthony Aveni criticized her work for failing to account for all the details. Alberto Rossel Castro (1977) proposed a multi-functional interpretation of the geoglyphs. He classified them into three groups: the first appeared to be tracks connected to irrigation and field division, the second are lines that are axes connected with mounds and cairns, and

9126-422: The lands. The figures vary in complexity. Hundreds are simple lines and geometric shapes ; more than 70 are zoomorphic designs, including a hummingbird, arachnid, fish, condor, heron, monkey, lizard, dog, cat, and a human. Other shapes include trees and flowers. Scholars differ in interpreting the purpose of the designs, but in general, they ascribe religious significance to them. They were designated in 1994 as

9243-410: The letters and two crowned sabre -faced eagles embracing them, which hold the coat of arms. The anthem of Lima was heard for the first time on 18 January 2008, in a solemn session that was attended by the then President of Peru Alan García , the mayor of the city Luis Castañeda Lossio and various authorities. Those in charge of creating the anthem were the councillors Luis Enrique Tord (author of

9360-521: The liberator and also the seat of the first Constituent Congress that the country had. The war lasted for two more years, during which the city changed hands many times and suffered abuses from both sides. By the time the war was decided, on 9 December 1824, at the Battle of Ayacucho , Lima had been considerably impoverished. After the War of Independence, Lima became the capital of the Republic of Peru , but

9477-591: The lines are formed on the ground by a shallow trench, with a depth between 10 and 15 cm (4 and 6 in). Such trenches were made by removing the reddish-brown, iron oxide -coated pebbles that cover the surface of the Nazca Desert. When this gravel is removed, the light-colored clay earth exposed in the bottom of the trench contrasts sharply in color and tone with the surrounding land surface, producing visible lines. This sub-layer contains high amounts of lime . With moisture from morning mist, it hardens to form

9594-514: The lyrics), Euding Maeshiro (composer of the melody) and the musical producer Ricardo Núñez (arranger). Although the history of the city of Lima began with its Spanish foundation in 1535, the territory formed by the valleys of the Rímac , Chillón and Lurín rivers was occupied by pre-Inca settlements, which were grouped under the Lordship of Ichma . The Maranga culture and the Lima culture were

9711-539: The main project website an image of a watch and chain inspired by John Harrison 's marine chronometer H5 was created. People have used the Strava mobile app to create Strava art , virtual geoglyphs. Lima Lima ( / ˈ l iː m ə / LEE -mə ; locally [ˈlima] ), founded in 1535 as the Ciudad de los Reyes ( locally [sjuˈdat de los ˈreʝes] , Spanish for "City of Kings "),

9828-420: The middle of Lima districts with very high urban growth, so they are surrounded by business and residential buildings; however, that does not prevent its perfect state of conservation. During the time of the Incas, the valley of Lima was highly populated and organized into an Inca province, or huamani (wamani), called Pachacamac. The colonial Spanish historian Bernabé Cobo mentions that the huamani of Pachacamac

9945-515: The most notable geoglyphs are visible. The first published mention of the Nazca Lines was by Pedro Cieza de León in his book of 1553, and he described them as trail markers . In 1569, Luis Monzón reported having seen ancient ruins in Peru, including the remains of "roads". Although the lines were partially visible from nearby hills, the first to report them in the twentieth century were Peruvian military and civilian pilots. In 1927, Peruvian archaeologist Toribio Mejía Xesspe spotted them while he

10062-485: The most populated city in the country, and the second most populous in the Americas after São Paulo. Together with the seaside city of Callao , it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area , which encompasses a total of 10,151,200 inhabitants. When considering the constitutional province of Callao , the total agglomeration reaches a population of 11,342,100 inhabitants, one of

10179-417: The north. As an emblematic point of this expansion, in 1973 the self-managed community of Villa El Salvador (current district of Villa El Salvador ) was created, located 30 km south of the city center and currently integrated into the metropolitan area . In the 1980s, terrorist violence added to the disorderly growth of the city the increase of settlers who arrived as internally displaced persons. In

10296-515: The ones that established and forged an identity in these territories. During those times, the sanctuaries of Lati (current Puruchuco ) and Pachacámac (the main pilgrimage sanctuary during the time of the Incas) were built, it was built from 3rd century to 15th century by several civilizations, and which was used even until the time the Spanish conquistadors arrived. These cultures were conquered by

10413-462: The original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river that runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river; however, Spanish documents from the colonial period show the opposite to be true. The Flag of Lima

10530-448: The other hand, summer rain is infrequent and occurs in the form of isolated light and brief showers. These generally occur during afternoons and evenings when leftovers from Andean storms arrive from the east. The lack of heavy rainfall arises from high atmospheric stability caused, in turn, by the combination of cool waters from semi-permanent coastal upwelling and the presence of the cold Humboldt Current and warm air aloft associated with

10647-549: The permission of the Peruvian Ministry of Culture. It required 1,440 labor hours and resulted in 303 newly confirmed figurative geoglyphs. The 1,309 candidates with high potential were further sorted into three ranks. A total of 1,200 labor hours were spent screening the AI-model geoglyph candidate photos. Anthropologists , ethnologists , and archaeologists have studied the ancient Nazca culture to try to determine

10764-643: The possible precursor that influenced the development of the Nazca Lines. In 2018, drones used by archaeologists revealed 25 geoglyphs in the Palpa province that are being assigned to the Paracas culture. Many predate the associated Nazca lines by a thousand years. Some demonstrate a significant difference in the subjects and locations, such as some being on hillsides. Their co-discoverer, Peruvian archaeologist Luis Jaime Castillo Butters, indicates that many of these newly discovered geoglyphs represent warriors. The Paracas

10881-409: The purpose of the lines and figures. Paul Kosok and Maria Reiche advanced a purpose related to astronomy and cosmology , as has been common in monuments of other ancient cultures: the lines were intended to act as a kind of observatory , to point to the places on the distant horizon where the sun and other celestial bodies rose or set at the solstices . Many prehistoric indigenous cultures in

10998-465: The same time, angry mobs attacked wealthy citizens and the Asian colony, looting their properties and businesses. At the beginning of the 20th century, the construction of avenues that would serve as a matrix for the development of the city began. The avenues Paseo de la República , Leguía (today called Arequipa), Brasil and the landscaping Salaverry that headed south and Venezuela and Colonial avenues to

11115-703: The seat of the Superior Court of Justice of Lima ), the Ministry of Health , the Ministry of Labor and the Hospitals of the Workers' Insurance and of the Employee as well as the National Stadium and several large housing units. Also in those years a phenomenon began that changed the configuration of the city, which was the massive immigration of inhabitants from the interior of the country, producing

11232-530: The site where the Cathedral of Lima is now, and the Municipal Theatre of Lima is situated where a pre-Columbian structure, referred to as Huaca El Cabildo by the Spaniards, once stood. These buildings were centered around a plaza, which was later expanded to become the Plaza Mayor . The Huaca de Aliaga and Huaca Riquelme were other major buildings near the plaza. Other nearby constructions included

11349-475: The site, as Greenpeace activists set up a banner within the lines of one of the geoglyphs, damaging the site. Greenpeace issued an apology following the incident, though one of the activists was convicted and fined for their part in causing damage. The Greenpeace incident also directed attention to other damage to geoglyphs outside of the World Heritage area caused in 2012 and 2013 by off-road vehicles of

11466-494: The site. Conservationists who seek to preserve the Nazca Lines are concerned about threats of pollution and erosion caused by deforestation in the region. The Lines themselves are superficial, they are only 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) deep and could be washed away... Nazca has only ever received a small amount of rain. But now there are great changes to the weather all over the world. The Lines cannot resist heavy rain without being damaged. After flooding and mudslides in

11583-409: The sky commonly turns shades of orange, pink, and red around 7 pm. During winter, June through October, the weather is dramatically different. Grey skies, breezy conditions, higher humidity, and cooler temperatures prevail. Long 10 to 15-day stretches of dark overcast skies are not uncommon. Persistent morning drizzle ( garúa ) frequently occurs from June through September, coating the streets with

11700-750: The south of England created since the early 1800s have kept up the region's ancient tradition of chalk hillside figures. Examples of these are the Litlington White Horse , Devizes White Horse , Fovant Badges , Cherhill White Horse , and the Marlborough White Horse . In 2008–2009 Alfie Dennen created Britglyph , a locative art -focused geoglyph created by having participants across the United Kingdom leave rocks at highly specific locations and uploading media created at each location. When taken together and viewed on

11817-536: The stone-lined labyrinths of Scandinavia , Iceland , Lappland and the former Soviet Union are types of geoglyphs. The south of England has a number of equine and human figures cut into chalk hillsides. Examples include the Uffington White Horse , Cerne Abbas Giant , Westbury White Horse , and the Long Man of Wilmington . Some are ancient, others from the last few centuries. The " Works of

11934-472: The surrounding foothills and other high places. The shapes are usually made from one continuous line. The largest ones are about 370 m (400 yd) long. Because of its isolation and the dry, windless, stable climate of the plateau , the lines have mostly been preserved naturally. Extremely rare changes in weather may temporarily alter the general designs. As of 2012, the lines are said to have been deteriorating because of an influx of squatters inhabiting

12051-495: The temperatures, thereby making the climate much milder than those to be expected for a tropical desert, and thus Lima can be classified as a desert climate ( Köppen : BWh ) with subtropical temperature ranges. Temperatures rarely fall below 12 °C (54 °F) or rise above 30 °C (86 °F). Two distinct seasons can be identified: summer, December through April, and winter from June through September/October. May and October/November are generally transition months, with

12168-529: The temple-oracle of Rímac, one of the main places of worship in the valley, also known as the so-called "huaca grande" that once stood in Barrios Altos . In 1532, the Spanish and their indigenous allies (from the ethnic groups subdued by the Incas) under the command of Francisco Pizarro took monarch Atahualpa prisoner in the city of Cajamarca . Although a ransom was paid, he was sentenced to death for political and strategic reasons. After some battles,

12285-416: The third was linked to astronomical interpretations. In 1985, archaeologist Johan Reinhard published archaeological, ethnographic , and historical data demonstrating that worship of mountains and other water sources predominated in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He theorized that the lines and figures were part of religious practices involving the worship of deities associated with

12402-632: The three branches of the Government of Peru . The executive branch is headquartered in the Government Palace , located in the Plaza Mayor . All ministries are located in the city. The legislative branch is headquartered in the Legislative Palace and is home to the Congress of the Republic of Peru . The Judicial branch is headquartered in the Palace of Justice and is home to

12519-413: The time of Erich von Däniken's publishing of Chariots of the Gods? , scientists and archeologists such as Maria Reiche declared that his ideas were absurd and should be discarded. These scientists and archeologists also were able to prove that these lines could have been made using simple tools that would have been available to the people at the time they were created. Erich von Däniken's books Arrival of

12636-472: The top layer of reddish-brown ferric oxide –coated pebbles to reveal a yellow-grey subsoil. The width of the lines varies considerably, but more than half are slightly more than 33 cm (13 in) wide. In some places they may be only 30 cm (12 in) wide, and in others reach 1.8 m (6 ft) wide. Some of the Nazca lines form shapes that are best seen from the air (at around 500 m [1,600 ft]), although they are also visible from

12753-526: The traditional name of Casa de Pizarro ) and the Cathedral , whose first stone Pizarro laid with his own hands. In August 1536, the flourishing city was besieged by the troops of the Inca general Quizu Yupanqui under orders from the monarch Manco Inca Yupanqui who was in Cusco, but the Spanish and their indigenous allies managed to defeat them. The Huaylas (Wayllas) army's assistance was of special importance to

12870-529: The west joining the port of Callao . In the 1930s the great constructions began with the remodeling of the Government Palace of Peru and the Palacio Municipal . These constructions reached their peak in the 1950s, during the government of Manuel A. Odría , when the great buildings of the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Education were built ( Javier Alzamora Valdez Building , currently

12987-403: The wives of Emperor Huayna Capac. Lima was awarded to Taulichusco in recognition of his services to the Inca royalty. Some of Peru's most important buildings were erected on the sites of major constructions of the pre-Hispanic settlement. For example, the residential palace of Taulichusco was located where the modern Palacio de Gobierno of Peru stands today. A temple called Puma Inti once occupied

13104-448: Was divided, according to the government of the Inca kings, into three 'unos' or governorships of ten thousand families each; the town of Caraguayllo was the head of the first; that of Maranga, which is situated in the middle of the valley, of the second, and the third, that of Surco; this last town was the largest of all ... The inhabitants of the pre-Columbian town of Surco were relocated to the modern district of Santiago de Surco early in

13221-428: Was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted: the chronicles show "Límac" replacing "Ychma" as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word "Lima" originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq. Linguistic evidence seems to support this theory, as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. The city

13338-458: Was fascinated by Nazca and was also a strong believer in extraterrestrial visitations. Von Däniken published a best-selling book titled Chariots of the Gods? in 1968. In this book he describes his theory that the lines were used as landing sites for UFOs. Däniken claimed that the Nazca lines site reflected visits by astronauts from other worlds, who became the creators of ancient civilizations. According to Von Däniken, Sanskrit literature describes

13455-499: Was founded in 1535 under the name City of Kings (Spanish: Ciudad de los Reyes ), because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany . This name quickly fell into disuse, and Lima became the city's name of choice; on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru, both Lima and Ciudad de los Reyes can be seen together. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac , and many people erroneously assume that this

13572-489: Was hiking through the foothills. He discussed them at a conference in Lima in 1939. Paul Kosok , an American historian from Long Island University in New York, is credited as the first scholar to study the Nazca Lines in depth. While in Peru in 1940–41 to study ancient irrigation systems, he flew over the lines and realized that one was in the shape of a bird. Another chance observation helped him see how lines converged on

13689-502: Was subdivided into three hunu of tributary men, rather than the conventional four hunu. It has also been argued that a fourth hunu may have existed but was not recorded. The primary meaning of the word hunu in Quechua is 10,000, leading to the assumption that 30,000 families lived in the valley. This assumption has been criticized, including by the historian Åke Wedin, because hunu can also mean countless, and therefore could simply refer to

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