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139-492: The NU was founded in 1926 by the ulema and merchants to defend both traditionalist Islamic practices (in accordance with Shafi'i school ) and its members' economic interests. NU's religious views are considered "traditionalist" in that it accepts local cultural traditions that do not conflict with Islamic law (in contrast to Islamic fundamentalist groups). By contrast, the second largest Islamic organization in Indonesia,

278-461: A progressive , liberal , and pluralistic Islamic movement, but is a diverse organization with large conservative factions, as well. The Nahdlatul Ulama has stated that it is not tied to any political organization. NU was established in 1926 as an organization for orthodox Ash'ari Muslims scholars, as opposed to the modernist policies of the Muhammadiyah and PERSIS (organization) , and

417-563: A "way of freeing the soul from the distractions of the world". Important early scholars who further elaborated on mysticism were Harith al-Muhasibi (781–857 AD) and Junayd al-Baghdadi (835–910 AD). The early Muslim conquests brought about Arab Muslim rule over large parts of the Hellenistic world . During the time of the Umayyad Caliphate , at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with

556-582: A degree of syncretism . Many NU elders, leaders, and religious scholars, however, have rejected Islam Nusantara in favor of a more conservative approach. Nahdlatul Ulama follows the Ashʿari and Maturidi schools, taking the middle path between aqli ( rationalist ) and naqli ( scripturalist ) tendencies. The organization identifies the Quran , the Sunnah , and the abilities of the mind coupled with empirical reality as

695-639: A dispute over the organization of the Haj pilgrimage led to Prime Minister Natsir's opposition to the reappointment of Hasyim as religious affairs minister in the next cabinet. In the ensuing cabinet crisis, the NU made a series of demands, including the retention of Hasyim, and threatened to leave Masyumi. On 5 April 1952, a few days after the announcement of a new cabinet without Hasyim, the NU decided in principle to leave Masyumi. Three months later it withdrew all its members from Masyumi councils, and on 30 August it established

834-438: A distinct organization, split from Masyumi, ostensibly because of disagreements with the leadership, especially with Natsir. However, Masyumi and other politicians of the time took the view that the main reason for reestablishing the party was to obtain seats in the new cabinet as other main parties had rejected Masyumi's demands to be given a dominant role in it - including the position of prime minister . In return for support for

973-640: A joint program with the University of Vienna entitled VORTEX (Vienna Observatory for Applied Research on Radicalism and Extremism). The project is funded by the Indonesian Ministry of Internal Security. It also launched an American nonprofit organization called Bayt ar-Rahmah in Winston-Salem , North Carolina . On the other hand, Nahdlatul Ulama leaders gave a fatwa in favor of female genital mutilation (FGM). In 2019, NU called for

1112-402: A line of thought developed around the idea of mysticism , striving for the perfection ( Ihsan ) of worship. During the first Islamic century, Hasan al-Basri (642–728 AD) was one of the first Muslim scholars to describe, according to Albert Hourani (1991) "the sense of the distance and nearness of God ... in the language of love". During the 7th century, the ritual of Dhikr evolved as

1251-597: A link between the wahhabiyya and parts of the salafiyya movements. The theological differences between the two movements were altogether too large for a complete union of the two doctrines. However, the opening of the Salafi movement towards Wahhabism helped to reconcile the latter with the Islamic public after king Ibn Saud 's invasion of the Hijaz in 1924. The Central Arabian militias ( Iḫwān ) had occupied and looted

1390-623: A meeting in March. This resulted in the establishment of the Mediating Body for Indonesian Political Parties (Bapeppi), but as neither Gerindo nor Paguyuban Pasundan were prepared to join it, it achieved nothing. Later that same year, Mohammad Husni Thamrin from Parindra took the initiative, and was largely responsible for the formation of the Indonesian Political Federation (GAPI), which brought together all

1529-631: A member of he MRI executive, had not been consulted in advance, the PSII withdrew from GAPI and along with the MIAI also left the MRI. In 1942 the occupying Japanese banned all political activity, and the party announced the closure of its head office on 9 May. Rather than working with the MIAI, in 1943 the Japanese established an organization called Masyumi in an attempt to control Islam in Indonesia. After

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1668-425: A number of students out of the revenue from religious endowments ( waqf ) , allocated to a specific institution by the donor. In later times, the deeds of endowment were issued in elaborate Islamic calligraphy , as is the case for Ottoman endowment books (vakıf-name) . The donor could also specify the subjects to be taught, the qualification of the teachers, or which madhhab the teaching should follow. Moreover,

1807-701: A parliament had been established. On 12 December 1942, after the outbreak of War with Japan , GAPI and the executive of the Indonesian People's Council (MRI), an organisation comprising GAPI, the MIAI and the PVPN civil service union released a statement calling for the Indonesian population to cooperate with and obey the Dutch colonial to defend peace and maintain order. Although this led to government finally agreeing to hold talks because Abikusno Tjokrosujoso,

1946-648: A period of political instability began with the collapse of the Safavid reign after shah Sultan Husayns death in 1722. In the light of the discontinuity and fragmentation of the central government, two social groups maintained continuity and, consequently, rose in power: Tribal chieftains established, amongst others, the Khanates of the Caucasus , the Afsharid and Zand dynasties . The second group who benefitted from

2085-541: A private activity, largely by medical men, pursued with discretion, and often met with suspicion". The founder of Islamic philosophical ethics is Ibn Miskawayh (932–1030 AD) He combined Aristotelian and Islamic ethics, explicitly mentioning the Nicomachean Ethics and its interpretation by Porphyry of Gaza as the foundation of his philosophical thoughts. In the 12th century, the early Islamic Neoplatonism which had developed out of Hellenistic philosophy

2224-517: Is "to spread messages about a tolerant Islam in their respective countries to curb radicalism, extremism and terrorism," which, it claims, "often spring from a misinterpretation of Islamic teachings." In December 2014, NU launched a global campaign against extremism and jihadism . Alongside NU theologians, the group built a prevention center in Indonesia to train Arabic-speaking students to combat jihadist rhetoric . Additionally, NU created

2363-471: Is a movement which emerged in North India in the mid-19th century. By rejecting taqlid (following legal precedent) and favoring ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) based on the foundational scriptures of Islam, they oppose the traditional madhhab and criticize their reliance on legal authorities other than the traditional texts. The Ahl-i Hadith was the first organization which printed and spread

2502-519: Is brought to us by former generations and foreign peoples. For him who seeks the truth there is nothing of higher value than truth itself. The works of Aristotle , in particular his Nicomachean Ethics , had a profound influence on the Islamic scholars of the Golden Age like Al-Farabi (870–950 AD), Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri (d. 992 AD) and Ibn Sina (ca. 980–1037 AD). In general, the Islamic philosophers saw no contradiction between philosophy and

2641-460: Is known as the ijazat at-tadris wa 'l-ifta ( lit.   ' license to teach and issue legal opinions ' ). Through time, this practice has established a chain of teachers and pupils who have become teachers in their own time. The traditional place of higher education is the madrasa . The institution likely originated in Khurasan during the 10th century AD, and spread to other parts of

2780-411: The ijazah , the scholar's approval by another master, is key to the scholar's reputation, the latter would be greater in regions where the approving masters is more widely known. The second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab , funded a group of Muslims to study the revelations, stories of Muhammed's life, "and other pertinent data, so that when he needed expert advice" he could draw it from these "people of

2919-573: The 1955 legislative election with 2.9 percent of the vote, winning eight seats in the People's Representative Council . In the 1971 election it won 2.4 percent of the vote and ten seats, but shortly after was forced to fuse into the United Development Party , ending its existence as a separate political entity. After the forced merger of the parties, the PSII became a mass nonpolitical organization called Syarekat Islam. Following

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3058-501: The Constitutional Assembly , which was tasked with drawing up a permanent constitution. The results were very similar, with the NU winning 91 of the 514 seats. In the 1950s, the NU still wanted to see Indonesia become an Islamic state, and expressed its disapproval of a 1953 presidential speech in which Sukarno rejected this. Three years later, it also argued against Sukarno's "conception" that would eventually lead to

3197-585: The Indonesian Islamic Political Party (Parii), and in 1938, after a failed reconciliation with the PSII, the Indonesian Islamic Party . Meanwhile, the fortunes of the PSII waned in 1934 when the Dutch colonial authorities clamped down on nationalist activities and party leader Tjokroaminoto died. Following this, Abikusno Tjokrosujoso (Tjokroaminoto's younger brother) and S. M. Kartosuwiryo took control of

3336-828: The Ja'fari and Zaidi schools. Minor madhhab also mentioned in the Amman message are the Ibadi and the Zahiri schools. All Sunni madhhabs recognize four sources of sharia (divine law): the Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). However, the madhhabs differ from each other in their conception of the Principles of Islamic jurisprudence , or uṣūl al-fiqh , as briefly summarised by Hourani (1991). The Hanbalis accepted only

3475-512: The Muhammadiyah , is considered "reformist" as it takes a more literal interpretation of the Qur'an and Sunnah . Some leaders of Nahdlatul Ulama are ardent advocates of Islam Nusantara , a distinctive variety of Islam that has undergone interaction, contextualization, indigenization, interpretation, and vernacularization according to socio-cultural conditions in Indonesia. Islam Nusantara promotes moderation , anti- fundamentalism , pluralism , and

3614-817: The fall of Suharto , Nahdlatul Ulama members and Islamic clerics were killed by rioters in Banyuwangi in East Java when a witchhunt against alleged sorcerers spiralled out of control. Following the fall of Suharto and his replacement by Vice-president B. J. Habibie , in July 1998 Gus Dur announced the establishment of the National Awakening Party ( Indonesian : Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa, PKB ). On 10 November, Gus Dur met with other pro-reform figures Amien Rais , Megawati Sukarnoputri and Sultan Hamengkubuwono . The so-called Ciganjur Four, named after

3753-536: The fall of Suharto , on 29 May 1998 the PSII was revived with Taufiq Rusjdi Tjokroaminoto, grandson of Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto, as chairman. In the 1999 election it received less than 0.5% of the vote, winning one seat in the legisalture , held by Amaruddin Djajasubita, representing Tasikmalaya . Party chair Taufiq Rusjdi Tjokroaminoto died in February 2001 and the party was subsequently dissolved according to

3892-401: The madrasas focuses on the law, but also includes what Zaman (2010) called "Sharia sciences" (al-ʿulūm al-naqliyya) as well as the rational sciences like philosophy, astronomy, mathematics or medicine. The inclusion of these sciences sometimes reflects the personal interests of their donors, but also indicates that scholars often study various different sciences. Early on in Islamic history,

4031-638: The ummah . His temporal authority would be set up in the Hejaz , whilst he would hold religious authority over the entire Muslim community, "assisted ... by a consultative council nominated by the Muslim rulers". Al-Kawākibīs idea that the Arabian doctrine represented a more puristic form of the Islam, according to Cleveland and Bunton (2016), prepared the ground for the 20th century Arab nationalism as well as

4170-788: The 11th century on, the Muʿtazila was suppressed by the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Empire , but it continued playing an important role in the formation of Shia theology. The Ash'ari school encouraged the use of Kalām as the basis of fiqh, and was followed in this approach by parts of the Shafi'i madhhab. In contrast, the Hanbali and Maliki madhhabs discouraged theological speculation. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 AD) developed his own form of Kalām, differing from

4309-567: The 16th century, scholars like the Shaykh al-Islām Kemālpaşazade (d. 1534), Aḥmād b. Muṣṭafā Taşköprüzāde (1494–1561), Kınalızāde ʿAli Çelebi (d. 1572) and Ali ben Bali (1527–1584) established a seamless chain of tradition from Abu Hanifa to their own time. Explicitly, some authors stated that their work must not only be understood as the historiography of the Hanafi madhhab , but that it should be consulted in case of eventual disagreements within

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4448-578: The 17 August 1945 Indonesian Declaration of Independence , at the end of October, the Working Committee of the Central Indonesian National Committee , the acting legislature, called for political parties to be formed. A new organization, also called Masyumi, was formed on 7 November. It comprised all the members of the wartime Masyumi, including the PSII. In July 1947, the PSII, which had never ceased to be

4587-790: The 18th century, and shaped the relationship between ulama and government during the reigns of the subsequent dynasties. With the accession of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar to the Iranian throne, the Qajar dynasty consolidated the central power. However, the Qajar Shahs, in particular Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (r. 1848–1896), whose reign paralleled that of the Ottoman Sultans of the Tanzimat time, failed at obtaining central control over

4726-488: The 1980, the Nahdlatul Ulama schools also offered degrees in economy, jurisdiction, paedagogical and medical sciences. In the 1990s, under their leader Abdurrahman Wahid , the organization adopted an anti-fundamentalistic doctrine, teaching democracy and pluralism. Darul Uloom Deoband , next to al-Azhar one of the most influential madrasas, was founded in the city of Deoband , Uttar Pradesh , in 1867. Initially,

4865-456: The Ash'ari view in the question of Man's free will and God's omnipotence. Maturidi Kalām was often used in combination with Hanafi fiqh in the northwestern parts of the Islamic world. A distinct school of theology often called traditionalist theology emerged under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal in the early centuries of Islam among hadith scholars who rejected rationalistic argumentation. In

5004-551: The Deoband School. Ashraf Ali Thanwi (1863–1943) is one of the most prominent teachers of Darul Uloom Deoband. Thanwi initiated and edited multi-volume encyclopedic commentaries on the Quran. However, he was also able to reach out to a larger audience: His book Bahishti Zewar , which is still widely read in South Asia, as it details, amongst other topics, the proper conduct and beliefs for Muslim women. Ahl-i Hadith

5143-518: The Government of the Republic of Indonesia on that matter. NOW THEREFORE, WE HEREBY ORDER AND RECOMMEND THE FOLLOWING: First, For the NU to urgently request the Government of the Republic of Indonesia to determine a real and commensurate attitude and action towards efforts, especially towards the Dutch and their allies and supporters at home and overseas, that will endanger religious freedom and

5282-492: The Indonesian League of Muslims, comprising the NU, PSSI and a number of smaller organizations. It was chaired by Hasyim. During the liberal democracy era (1950–1957), NU members served in a number of cabinet posts. In the first Ali Sastroamidjojo Cabinet , the NU held three seats, with Zainul Arifin appointed second deputy prime minister. However, following the fall of this cabinet, some NU members were opposed to

5421-627: The Islamic Block, which wanted Indonesian to become an Islamic state. The block made up 44.8% of total seats. However, with none of the blocks able to command a majority and push through the constitution it wanted, the assembly failed to agree and was dissolved by Sukarno in a decree on 5 July 1959 that also restored the original 1945 Constitution , which declared the state to be based on the Pancasila philosophy, not Islam. In 1960, President Sukarno banned Masyumi for alleged involvement in

5560-605: The Islamic doctrine. After Abduh's death in 1905, Rashīd Ridā continued editing al-Manār on his own. In 1924, he published a collection of writings by some ulama of Najd : Maǧmūʿat al-ḥadiṭ an-naǧdīya . Thus, the teachings of the Yemeni alim Muhammad ash-Shawkani (1759–1839), which had already been discussed since the 1880s, gained greater publicity. Likewise, the writings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328) came to attention again. Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrine provided

5699-532: The Islamic renewal movement of the Nahda . In 1912, the Muhammadiyah organization was founded in Yogyakarta (in modern-day Indonesia ), which, together with Nahdlatul Ulama ("Reawakening of the ulama"), founded in 1926, form the two largest Muslim organizations in the world. Since the 1930s, their religious boarding schools ( pesantren ) also taught mathematics, natural sciences, English and history. Since

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5838-710: The Islamic world from the late 11th century onwards. The most famous early madrasas are the Sunni Niẓāmiyya , founded by the Seljuk vizir Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092) in Iran and Iraq in the 11th century. The Mustansiriya , established by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mustansir in Baghdad in 1234 AD, was the first to be founded by a caliph, and also the first known to host teachers of all four major madhhab known at that time. From

5977-534: The Islamic world to another can easily integrate themselves into the local Muslim community and hold offices there: The traveller Ibn Battuta (1304–1368 or 1369), born in Tangiers , Morocco, to a family of ulema, was appointed qadi by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq of Delhi . Nuruddin ar-Raniri (d. 1658), born to a Gujarati Muslim family, travelled to, and worked as Shaykh ul-Islam in modern-day Indonesia under

6116-477: The Islamic world. ʿAbduh understood Islah as a concept of "reform of mankind" (iṣlāḥ nauʿ al-insān) . In his works, he emphasized the special importance of a reform of the traditional madrasa system, which was taken to disadvantage by the parallel establishment of the secular, state-sponsored educational system in Egypt. He strove at reconciling the traditional and modern educational systems, thereby justifying from

6255-656: The Masyumi executive council Mohammad Natsir appointed one PSSI member, Harsono Tjokroaminoto to his cabinet , which took office on 6 September. However, Harsono resigned on 31 December shortly after the PSII had voted against a parliamentary motion of confidence in the cabinet. Haroso's brother, Anwar Tjokroaminoto was the only PSSI member in the Wilopo Cabinet , serving as social affairs minister from April 1952 until he resigned in May 1953. The party came fifth in

6394-582: The NU and the National Awakening Party (PKB). Comments by Yenny Wahid, for example, reflected these concerns when she said that the NU was fragmenting and "sliding into irrelevance". The NU exists to spread Islamic teaching. As well as preaching, it undertakes educational activities through its network of 6,830 Islamic boarding schools (or pesantren ). It also owns 44 universities; is involved in economic and agricultural studies; and provides social services such as family planning . Its goal

6533-523: The NU joining the new cabinet, to be formed by Burhanuddin Harahap Cabinet , believing that if he was unable to form a cabinet, the NU would be invited to try. It was finally pressured into participating, and was awarded the interior and religious affairs portfolios in the cabinet, which was sworn in on 12 August 1955. On 29 September 1955, Indonesia held its first parliamentary elections . The NU came in third, with almost 7 million votes, 18.4% of

6672-439: The NU later began to oppose Suharto's regime. In 1984, Abdurrahman Wahid , the grandson of NU founder Hasyim Asy'ari, inherited the leadership from his father, and was later elected President of Indonesia in 1999. He formally apologized for NU's involvement in the events of 1965. He also stated that "Nadhatul Ulama (NU) is like Shiite minus Imamah ; similarly Shiite is NU plus Imamah." There have been many similarities between

6811-406: The NU managed to maintain its 18% share of the vote from the 1955 poll. However, in 1973, it was obliged to "fuse" into the new United Development Party ( Indonesian : Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, PPP ). The PPP came second, after the government sponsored Golkar organization in the elections of 1977 and 1982 , but in 1984, the new NU chairman Abdurrahman Wahid (also known as Gus Dur ),

6950-400: The NU was accommodating, with Gus Dur calling Pancasila a "noble compromise" for Muslims. Five years later. Gus Dur was reelected for a second five-year term as chairman, a position he held until being elected president in 1999. In 1990, the NU worked with Bank Summa to establish a system of rural banks. Suharto did not approve of the NU straying beyond purely religious activities, and the fact

7089-735: The Name of God, the Most Gracious and Merciful: The Regional Leaders and Representatives of Nahdlatul Ulama, assembled in Surabaya, East Java, in general session of the Java-Madura Conference of the aformentioned on 21-22 October 1945, hereby declare that: Given that the testimonies and speeches given from representatives from Java and Madura revealed the huge desire of the Muslim Ummah and Ulama of these regions and in

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7228-437: The Ottoman law scholars "Hanafi of Rūm [i.e., the Ottoman Empire]" (Rūmi ḫānāfi) , "Scholars of Rūm" (ʿulamā'-ı rūm) or "Scholars of the Ottoman Empire" ( ʿulamā' al-dawla al-ʿUthmaniyyā ). The Shaykh al-Islām ( Turkish : Şeyhülislam ) in Istanbul became the highest-ranking Islamic scholar within, and head of the ulama throughout the empire. The ulama in the Ottoman Empire had a significant influence over politics due to

7367-423: The Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II of corrupting the Islamic community . The Ottoman despotism "encroaches on the rights of its citizens, keeps them ignorant to keep them passive, [and] denies their right to take an active part in human life". Therefore, the law must be reformed. By the use of ijtihad , a "modern and unified system of law" must be created, and "proper religious education" must be provided. Because of

7506-442: The PSII and the Indonesian Islamic Party at the 1938 conference resulted in it becoming more political in nature. Also in 1938, following discussions between PSII chairman Abikusno Tjokrosujoso and Soetomo , the leader of the nationalist party Parindra , the PSII tried to establish an organisation to unite the nationalist movement by inviting delegates from Parindra and two other organisations, Gerindo and Paguyuban Pasundan to

7645-443: The Permesta rebellion. However, the leadership of NU saw the pro-poor Communist Party of Indonesia , which was close to Sukarno, as an obstacle to its ambitions, and competed with it to win support from the poor. Five years later, the coup attempt by the 30 September Movement took place. In 1965, the group took sides with the General Suharto -led army and was heavily involved in the mass killings of Indonesian communists . However,

7784-439: The Quran and sunnah of the Prophet. The capacity of its interpretation lies with the ulama. By the eleventh century, the major schools of Sunni and Shia law ( madhhab ) had emerged. Whilst, historically, the schools were at times engaged in mutual conflicts, the differences became less controversial over time, and merely represent regional predominances today. The four most important Sunni schools are: Shia madhhab include

7923-414: The Quran and Hadith. Supplementing the sharia were customs ( ʿurf ) within a given society. Islamic law and regional customs were not opposed to each other: In 15th century Morocco, qadis were allowed to use a process called ʻamal in order to choose from different juridical opinions one which applied best to the local customs, even if they were not supported by the consensus of the majority. More often,

8062-424: The Shah. Thus, under the Qajar dynasty, the ulama provided a source of religious legitimacy and served as interpreters of religious law in a dual legal system where the state administered law based on custom ( ʻurf ) . Starting in the first half of the 19th century, direct contacts began and gradually increased between members of the ulama and modern Western Europe. The Egyptian alim Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873)

8201-464: The Shaykh al-Islām Ahīzāde Ḥüseyin Efendi. In 1656, Shaykh al-Islām Ḥocazāde Mesʿud Efendi was sentenced to death by sultan Mehmed IV . The use of the Sunni Islam as a legitimisation of the Ottoman dynastic rule is closely linked to Sultan Süleyman I and his kazasker and later Schaykh al-Islām Ebussuud Efendi . Ebussuud compiled an imperial book of law ( ḳānūn-nāme ), which combined religious law (sharīʿah) with secular dynastic law ( ḳānūn ) in

8340-463: The Sunni Hanafi doctrine which then served as the official religious doctrine of the empire. The formal acknowledgment by decree of the sultan became a prerequisite to issue fatwas. In the 17th century, the annalist al-Hamawi used the expression "sultanic mufti" ( al-ifta' al-sultani ) to delineate the difference between the officially appointed religious leaders and those who had followed the traditional way of education. Other authors at that time called

8479-399: The Sunni concept of analogy (qiyās) , Shia ulama prefer "dialectical reasoning" ( 'Aql ) to deduce law. The body of substantive jurisprudence ( fiqh ) defines the proper way of life through interpretation of sharia , which Muslims should follow if they want to live according to God's will. Over time, the madhhabs established "codes of conduct", examining human actions in the light of

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8618-400: The abolishment of the term " kafir " to describe non-Muslims. The highest body in the NU is its Syuriah (Supreme Council). Under this is the Tanfidziyah (Executive Council); the Mustasyar (Advisory Council) provides input to both. At the 2010 NU Conference, Sahal Mahfudh was elected chairman of the Executive Council, and thus serves as executive chief. At the same conference, Sahal Mahfudz

8757-452: The areas of the aforementioned to defend and uphold both religion and the sovereignty of the newly independent Republic of Indonesia, declared on the 17th of August of this year, against foreign aggression, during the duration of this Conference, considering that the defense of Republic of Indonesia according to the laws of the Islamic Religion as thus a obligation for every Muslim in accordance with Islamic doctrine, and that Muslims constitute

8896-493: The bank was owned by a Christian ethnic-Chinese family led to controversy. The bank was eventually shut down two years later because of financial mismanagement. Gus Dur also incurred the disapproval of the regime by holding a mass rally at a Jakarta stadium three months before the 1992 legislative elections , ostensibly to express support for Pancasila. This resulted in Gus Dur being invited to meet Lt. Col. Prabowo Subianto , Suharto's son-in-law at Jakarta Military Headquarters. At

9035-406: The base of its support remained in East Java. By 1928, the NU was using the Javanese language in its sermons, alongside Arabic. In 1937, despite poor relations between the NU and other Sunni Islam organizations in Indonesia, the organizations established the Supreme Islamic Council of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Majlis Islam A'laa Indonesia, MIAI ) as a discussion forum. They were joined by most of

9174-452: The basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah . The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, Sunnah , ijma , and qiyas ) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) must be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language. According to Feldman (2008), under many Muslim caliphate states and later states ruled by sultans,

9313-408: The beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman ulama still retained their political influence. When sultan Selim III tried to reform the Ottoman army , the ulama opposed his plans, which they rejected as an apostasy from Islam . Consequently, his reform failed. However, Selims successor Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) was more successful: He called the new troops, organised according to European models, by

9452-418: The belief in God and in life after death, which together provide the foundation of action in the pursuit of sa'āda (Happiness). According to Shia Islam , the authority to interpret the messages of the Quran and the Hadith lies with the Imamah , a line of infallible interpreters of the truth. The Sunni majority, however, reject this concept and maintain that God's will has been completely revealed in

9591-407: The belief that secular institutions were all subordinate to Islamic law, the Sharia ( Turkish : Şeriat ). The ulama were responsible for interpreting the religious law, therefore they claimed that their power superseded that of the government. Within the Ottoman hierarchy of ulama, the Shaykh al-Islām held the highest rank. He exerted his influence by issuing fatwas, his written interpretations of

9730-434: The bench". According to Tamim Ansary , this group evolved into the Ulama The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory. Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i (767–820), who codified

9869-460: The cabinet from an Islamic party, the PSII was given fiveseats in the new cabinet formed by Amir Sjarifuddin which took office on 3 July. The new PSII, led by Wondoamiseno and Arudji Kartawinata claimed to be same organization as the pre-war party. It did not cooperate with Masyumi after the split although leaders of both parties claimed their differences were minor, and was not as strong as Masyumi nationally. After Amir Sjarifuddin reshuffled

10008-691: The cabinet in November 1947, in the new lineup , the PSII was given five seats, including deputy prime minister. When this cabinet collapsed on 23 January 1948, the PSSI did not sit in any cabinets for more than two years. Following the reestablishment of the Indonesian unitary state after the dissolution of the United States of Indonesia in 1950, the PSII was given four seats in the Provisional People's Representative Council and chairman of

10147-626: The central position of the Arabic peoples in the ummah and the Arabic language in the intellectual discourse, but also because "Arabian Islam is ... free from modern corruptions and the bedouin are free from the moral decay and passivity of despotism", the balance of power must shift from the Turks towards the Arabs. The Ottoman dynasty must give up their claim to the caliphate , and a new caliph of Quraysh descent must be elected by representatives of

10286-643: The classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered. The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language initiated a period which is known today as the Islamic Golden Age . According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes al-Kindi (c. 801–873 AD), "the father of Islamic philosophy", as follows: We should not be ashamed to acknowledge truth from whatever source it comes to us, even if it

10425-603: The consensus of the Companions of the Prophet (aṣ-ṣaḥābah) , which gave more leeway to independent reasoning ( ijtihad ) within the boundaries of the rules of qiyās . The Hanafis hold that strict analogy may at times be supported by a limited use of juristic preference ( istihsan ) , whereas the Maliki school also allows pragmatic considerations in the interest of public welfare ( istislah ) are also acceptable. Instead of

10564-579: The course of the 19th century, this new elite carried on the Sultan's reforms and helped initiating a new era of reform, the Tanzimat . In parallel, the political influence of the ulama was circumvented and reduced step by step. A ministry for religious endowments was created in order to control the finances of the vakıf . Thus, the ulama lost direct control over their finances, which significantly reduced their capacity to exert political influence. In Iran,

10703-520: The deeds of the Ottoman sultans in terms of idealised Islamic ghazi warriors. According to Burak (2015), the Ottoman literature genres of the "rank order" ( Turkish : tabaḳat and the "biografic lexicon" ( Turkish : Eş-şakaiku'n ) compiled the biographies of scholars in such ways as to create a concise and coherent tradition of the doctrine and structure of the Ottoman imperial scholarship. During

10842-462: The donor is free to specify in detail the curriculum, as was shown by Ahmed and Filipovic (2004) for the Ottoman imperial madrasas founded by Suleiman the Magnificent . As Berkey (1992) has described in detail for the education in medieval Cairo , unlike medieval Western universities, in general madrasas have no distinct curriculum , and do not issue diplomas . The educational activities of

10981-586: The early months of the Indonesian National Revolution the NU declared on October 22, 1945, that the fight against the Dutch colonial forces was a holy war, obligatory for all Muslims of the nation (this day is since 2015 honored as National Santri Day). Among the guerrilla groups fighting for independence were Hizbullah and Sabillilah, which were led by the NU. NAHDLATUL ULAMA RESOLUTION to all members in Java and Madura Islands In

11120-732: The establishment of guided democracy , as this would mean PKI members sitting in the cabinet. On 2 March 1957, the Permesta rebellion broke out. Among its demands was the restoration of Mohammad Hatta to the vice-presidency. The NU supported these calls. Meanwhile, in the Constitutional Assembly, the NU joined Masyumi, the Indonesian Islamic Union Party (PSII), the Islamic Education Movement (Perti) and other parties to form

11259-679: The establishment of the Indonesian National Party (PNI) in 1927. The PSI changed its name to the Indonesian Islamic Union Party (PSII) in 1929. At the 1930 party congress held in Yogyakarta, the party outlined its six key principles, namely: Following allegations of misusing party funds, in 1933 Soekiman Wirjosandjojo and Soerjopranoto , both senior party figures, were expelled from the PSII. Along with other PSII dissidents, Soekiman formed

11398-662: The founders of the School of Isfahan , and Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ardabili (d. 1585). By their teachings, they further developed the Shi'a Islamic teachings and religious practice. However, as religion did no longer suffice to support political power in Persia, Abbas I had to develop independent concepts to legitimise his rule. He did so by creating a new ghulam army, thus evoking the Turco-Mongol tradition of Timur and his reign. By

11537-440: The founders of the political Islam and of the late 19th and 20th century Salafi movement . The Egyptian Grand Mufti Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), who was granted the degree of 'Alim by al-Azhar university in 1877, was the first who used the term Islāh in order to denote political and religious reforms. Until 1887 he edited together with al-Afghani the newspaper al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā ("The firm bond"). The gazette widely spread

11676-511: The freedom of religion, and wanting to restore their former colonial possessions, there have been battles that have sacrificed many lives in many places of the republic, Whereas, these battles were mostly carried out by members of the Muslim community who felt obliged according to their religious laws to defend the independence of their country and religious freedom, And whereas, in dealing with all these incidents, in accordance with our response, we have not received concrete orders and demands from

11815-526: The guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama" may refer broadly to the educated class of such religious scholars, including theologians , canon lawyers ( muftis ), judges ( qadis ), professors, and high state religious officials. Alternatively, "ulama" may refer specifically to those holding governmental positions in an Islamic state . By longstanding tradition, ulama are educated in religious institutions ( madrasas ). The Quran and sunnah (authentic hadith ) are

11954-682: The holy towns of Mecca and Medina, thereby destroying monuments which they considered pagan ( shirk ). Starting with the Pan-Islamic Congress in Mecca in 1926, the pro-Saudi movement developed into one of the most relevant currents of Islamic thought. In his Egyptian exile, the Syrian alim Abd ar-Rahman al-Kawakibi (1854–1902) met al-Afghani, Abduh and Rida. In his books Ṭabāʾiʿ al-istibdād ("The nature of despotism ") and Umm al-Qurā ("Mother of villages [i.e., Mecca]", 1899) he accused

12093-421: The imperial bureaucracy, and Ottoman secular law into Islamic law. In contrast, Shah Abbas I of Persia was unable to gain similar support by the Shi'a ulama, who retained a more independent position. During the late Safavid empire, the Shi'a ulama developed into one of the warrantors of continuity in a period of instability of the central government, thus securing a relative independency which they retained during

12232-421: The independence of the Indonesian nation, and second, for the NU to continue the "sabilillah" struggle for the establishment of the independent Republic of Indonesia and Islam. Resolved in Surabaya on the 22th day of October, 1945 (SGD.) THE NAHDLATUL ULAMA Following the recognition of Indonesian independence, a new party called Masyumi was established with the NU as a component of it. The NU leadership at

12371-511: The influence of Sufi mysticism weakened, the Shah's role as the head of the Safaviyya lost its significance as a justification for his political role. Abbas I thus sought to associate himself with eminent ulama like Shaykh Bahāʾi (1574–1621 AD), whom he made Shaykh al-Islām in his new capital, Isfahan. Other famous ulama working under Abbas's patronage were Mir Damad (d. 1631 or 1632 AD), one of

12510-416: The intellectual circles of one region could be unknown in another. The ability of scholars from one region to support their argument in another might therefore be limited by the familiarity with the respective texts of the community they are working in. In an era without book print or mass communication media, a scholar's reputation might have remain limited if he was unfamiliar with the local canon of texts. As

12649-483: The intention of the school was to help Indian Muslims, who had become subjects of the British Empire after 1857, to lead their lives according to Islamic law. The Deobandi propagate a Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school, which was the most prevalent madhhab in South Asia. Still today, they aim at a revival of the Islamic society and education. Following the example of Deoband, thousands of madrasas were founded during

12788-444: The issuing of fatwa as well as the use of Arabic, and later also Persian as common languages of discourse constituted the religious authority of the ulama throughout the entire Islamic world. Zaman has demonstrated that, as personal contacts were key to acquiring knowledge, Islamic scholars sometimes travel far in search of knowledge (ṭalab al-ʿilm) . Due to their common training and language, any scholars travelling from one region of

12927-645: The late 19th century which adopted the Deobandi way of studying fundamental texts of Islam and commenting on Quran and Hadith. By referring back to traditional Islamic scholars, the Deobandi School aims at defending the traditional Islamic madhhab, especially the Hanafi, against criticism which arose from other Islamic schools like the Ahl-i Hadith . During the 1990s, the Afghan taliban also referred to

13066-708: The location of Gus Dur's house, issued a declaration calling the Habibie administration "transitional" and calling for elections to be brought forward and for the Indonesian Military to end its political role. In Indonesia's first free elections since 1955, held on 7 June 1999, the PKB won 13 percent of the vote. In the ensuing session of the People's Consultative Assembly, Gus Dur was elected President of Indonesia , defeating Megawati by 373 votes to 313. However, he

13205-431: The majority of the citizenry of the young Republic, and considering the following realities faced by the Muslim community: Whereas, That the Dutch (NICA) and the Japanese who came and were here in the lands of the Republic carried out many crimes and atrocities which disturbed the peace, Whereas, That everything they did was done with the intention of violating the sovereignty of the independent Republic of Indonesia and

13344-402: The meeting, Gus Dur was warned to avoid unacceptable political conduct, and told that if he insisted in involving himself in politics, rather than confining himself to religious matters, he should express support for a further presidential term for Suharto. In response, Gus Dur threatened to leave the NU. This resulted in the regime backing down, as it could not risk bringing Gus Dur down. During

13483-496: The most distinguished Islamic law scholars of his territory. In his 2015 study on the "second formation of Islamic law", Burak has shown in detail how the Ottoman state gradually imposed upon the traditional ulama a hierarchy of "official imperial scholars", appointed and paid by the central government. From the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo in 1517 onwards, the Ottoman ulama set up their own interpretation of

13622-550: The name "Victorious army of Muhammad" ( Asâkir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye ). By doing so, he was able to overcome the accusation of apostasy and secure the ulama's support. Mahmuds reforms created a new imperial elite class who spoke Western European languages and were knowledgeable of the Western European societies and their political systems. As the political and economic pressure increased on the Ottoman Empire in

13761-557: The nationalist inorganizations except the PNI. It included organisations that had take a more cooperative stance with the colonial government by agreeing to take seats in the Volksraad quasi-legislature, as well as those that were non-cooperative, such as the PSII. Within GAPI, the PSII was uninterested in international affairs, unlike some other members of the organisation. Within GAPI, it

13900-520: The occupiers had wanted. Just over a year later, the MIAI was dissolved and replaced by the Japanese-sponsored Masyumi (Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims). Hasjim Asjari was the notional chairman, but in practice the new organization was led by his son, Wahid Hasyim . Other NU and Muhammadiyah figures held leadership positions. In 1945, Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence , which NU supported. During

14039-582: The other Islamic organizations in existence at the time. In 1942, the Japanese occupied Indonesia and in September a conference of Islamic leaders was held in Jakarta. The Japanese wanted to replace the MIAI, but the conference not only decided to maintain the organization, but also elected political figures belonging to the PSII to the leadership, rather than members of the non-political NU or Muhammadiyah as

14178-409: The pan-islamistic concept of Islam representing a religious bond which was believed to be stronger than nationality or language. From 1876 on, Abduh edited the newspaper al-Ahrām . Since 1898, he also edited, together with Rashid Rida (1865–1935), the newspaper al-Manār ("The Beacon"), in which he further developed his ideas. al-Manār appeared in print for almost 40 years and was read throughout

14317-481: The party. Agus Salim was expelled, and the party began to take a much tougher anti-colonial stance. In September 1937, the Supreme Islamic Council of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Majlis Islam A'laa Indonesia, MIAI ), a grouping of Muslim organisations including the PSII, was formed by Mas Mansoer , Ahmad Dahlan and Abdul Wahab Hasbullah . Established to discuss religious matters, pressure from

14456-588: The person of the sultan. For example, Ebussuud provided a reason why the government could own land, or could levy and increase taxes, as the government was responsible for the protection of the common good of all Muslims. Shaikh Safi-ad-Din Ardabili (1252–1334) was the founder of the Safaviyya tariqa . Safi ad-Din's great-great grandson Ismail , who from 1501 onwards ruled over the Persian Empire ,

14595-450: The point of view of Islam the introduction of modern institutions by the national state. He referred to the Islamic concept of the collective interest or common good of the Muslim community (maṣlaḥa) , to which he accorded overarching importance (al-maṣlaḥa shar) in the interest of his fellow Muslims. The concept of islāh gained special relevance for the future, as it strives at understanding and justifying all aspects of modern life from

14734-693: The protection of Iskandar Thani , Sultan of Aceh . Both scholars were able to move freely in an "interconnected world of fellow scholars". According to Zaman, their offices and positions as respected scholars were only questioned if they proved themselves unfamiliar with local customs (as happened to Ibn Battuta]), or met resistance from opponents with stronger local roots (ar-Raniri). Through their travels and teachings, ulama are able to transmit new knowledge and ideas over considerable distances. However, according to Zaman (2010), scholars have often been required to rely on commonly known texts which could support their fatwas . A text which might be widely known within

14873-487: The reign of subsequent dynasties. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the leaders and subjects of the Ottoman Empire became increasingly aware of its role as a great power of its time. This new self-awareness was associated with the idea to legitimise the new political role by linking the religious scholarship to the political system: Ottoman historians of the 15th and 16th century like Ibn Zunbul or Eyyûbî, described

15012-448: The religion of Islam. However, according to Hourani, al-Farabi also wrote that philosophy in its pure form was reserved for an intellectual elite, and that ordinary people should rely for guidance on the sharia . The distinction between a scholarly elite and the less educated masses "was to become a commonplace of Islamic thought". As exemplified by the works of al-Razi ( c. 865–925 AD), during later times, philosophy "was carried on as

15151-552: The religious concept of the Muslim collective interest ( maṣlaḥa ) to make his point, thereby applying the idea of ijtihad to public affairs. Positions comparable to the Western Islamic ulama were also taken in the Eastern parts of the Islamic world by Syed Ahmad Khan , the pioneering Muslim modernist in South Asia, and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani . The latter is regarded as the mentor of Pan-Islamism , but also as one of

15290-521: The rise of Salafi movement of the Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya organization in Indonesia, which rejected local customs influenced by pre-Islamic Javanese Hindus and Buddhist traditions at all. The organization was established after The Committee of Hijaz had fulfilled its duty and about to be dissolved. The organization was established by Hasyim Asy'ari , the head of an Islamic religious school in East Java. The organization expanded, but

15429-525: The royal family's claim at descendency from Musa al-Kadhim , the Seventh Imam, and thus to legitimise the Safavid rule. During the reign of Shah Abbas I (1571 – 1629 AD), the argument of the theocratic unity of religious and political power was no longer sufficient to legitimise the Shah's authority: Shi'a ulama renounced the monarch's claim to represent the hidden Imam by teaching that descendancy did not necessarily mean representation. Likewise, as

15568-537: The school of law. This exemplifies their purpose to establish a canon of Hanafi law within the Ottoman imperial scholarship. which modern Ottomanists termed the "Ottoman Islam". After 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror (1432–1481) had established eight madrasas in former Byzantine church buildings, and later founded the sahn-ı şeman or "Eight courtyards madrasa", adjacent to the Fatih mosque , where he brought together

15707-429: The scriptural sources of traditional Islamic law . Students of Islamic doctrine do not seek out a specific educational institution, but rather seek to join renowned teachers. By tradition, a scholar who has completed their studies is approved by their teacher. At the teacher's individual discretion, the student is given the permission for teaching and for the issuing of legal opinions ( fatwa ) . The official approval

15846-579: The sharia had authority over the entire Ottoman population. In the 16th century, as the support by the ulama of the sultan and the central government was essential for shaping the still-growing empire, the importance of the office rose, and its power increased. As members of the Ilmiye , the imperial scholars were part of the Ottoman elite class of the Askeri , and were exempt from any taxes. However, by approving scholars and appointing them to offices, over time

15985-601: The son of Wahid Hasyim , withdrew the NU from the PPP because of dissatisfaction with the NU's lack of influence. As a result, in the 1987 election , the PPP vote collapsed from 28% in 1982 to only 16%. From then on, it was expected that the NU would concentrate on religious and social activities. In 1984, the New Order government announced that all organizations would have to accept state ideology Pancasila as their basis . Once again

16124-506: The sources of its thought. It attributes this approach to earlier thinkers such as Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari and Abu Mansur al-Maturidi in the field of theology . In the field of jurisprudence , it recognizes the Hanafi , Maliki , Shafi'i , and Hanbali schools of law, but relies in practice on Shafi'i teachings. Regarding Sufism , NU follows the path of al-Ghazali and al-Junayd al-Baghdadi . It has been described by Western media as

16263-417: The split, and passed a resolution banning officials from holding political posts, seen as a commitment to avoiding future political involvement. After the conference, concerns about the longer term role of the NU continued to attract comment in the national media. During 2011, for example, there was continuing discussion about the national role that the NU should play and about the close political links between

16402-466: The sultan's influence increased over the religious scholars, although, as a Muslim, he still stood under the Islamic law. Even the Shaykh al-Islām was subordinate to the sultan; his position, like the ranks of the muftis, was described as a "service" ( Turkish : hizmet ) or "rank" ( Turkish : rütbe or paye-ı Sahn ), to which a candidate was appointed or elevated. Sometimes, the sultans made use of their power: In 1633, Murad IV gave order to execute

16541-426: The time had no political skills, and was awarded few influential cabinet positions, with the exception of chairman Wahid Hasyim , who was appointed religious affairs minister. The NU was unhappy with its lack of influence within Masyumi, especially after a decision at the 1949 party conference changed the party's religious council, on which the NU held several positions, into a powerless advisory body. Two years later,

16680-551: The time of the Persian Ilkhanate (1260–1335 AD) and the Timurid dynasty (1370–1507 AD) onwards, madrasas have often become part of an architectural complex which also includes a mosque, a Sufi ṭarīqa , and other buildings of socio-cultural function, like baths or a hospital . Madrasas are considered sacred places of learning. They may provide boarding and salaries to a limited number of teachers, and boarding for

16819-448: The total, behind the Indonesian National Party and Masyumi. It was awarded 45 seats in the People's Representative Council , up from only eight before the election. The NU was the largest party in its East Java base, and 85.6% of its vote came from Java . There was a clear division between Masyumi, representing outer-island, urban voters and the NU, representing the rural Javanese constituency. Three months later, elections were held for

16958-537: The traditional education of an alim, his interest focused on modern French concepts of administration and economy. He only referred to Islam in order to emphasize that Muslims can adopt practical knowledge and insights from Europe. As such, lt-Tahtawi's report reflects the political efforts of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who did not intend to reform al-Azhar university, but aimed at building an independent educational system sponsored by his government. Hayreddin Pasha (1822/3–1890)

17097-408: The two opponent early modern Islamic empires, both relied on ulama in order to legitimise their power. In both empires, ulama patronised by the royal courts created "official" religious doctrines which supported the dynastic rule. At the high points of their political power, respectively, the development took different paths: The Ottoman Sultan Süleyman I successfully integrated the imperial ulama into

17236-512: The two, such as the position and role of kyai . The main contrast between them is that in NU, the concept is visible in the form of accepted culture, while in Shia, it takes the form of theology . Following the deposing of Sukarno , the New Order regime under President Suharto held elections in 1971. Despite manipulation of the NU by the government, which caused it to lose much credibility,

17375-604: The ulama were regarded as the guardians of Islamic law and prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results, with the ruler and ulama forming a sort of "separation of powers" in government. Laws were decided based on the Ijma (consensus) of the Ummah (community), which was most often represented by the legal scholars. The Sunni Ottoman, and the Shi'a Safavid Persian dynasties, rulers of

17514-637: The ulama's support in an attempt to strengthen their authority. Particularly, they associated themselves with a group of ulama who supported the "official" Twelver Shi'a doctrine, established by the Iranian Shaykh al-Islām Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi (1627–1699) during the later decades of Safavid rule. The dispute between the Twelver Shi'a and Mir Damad 's (d. 1631 or 1632) and Mulla Sadra 's (c. 1571/2 – 1640) School of Isfahan , who promoted Sufi mysticism and Islamic philosophy , continued throughout

17653-578: The ulama. The Shiite scholars retained their political influence on the Persian society. They also maintained unrestricted access to the financial resources from the religious endowments. In addition, the Islamic Zakat tax was paid to individual imams and not to state-sponsored tax collectors. Both their religious influence and their financial means allowed the Shiite ulama to act, at times, against

17792-452: The use of sharia led to changes in local customs. ʿIlm al-Kalām , the "science of discourse", also termed "Islamic theology", serves to explain and defend the doctrine of the Quran and Hadith. The concept of kalām was introduced during the first Islamic centuries by the Muʿtazila school. One of the most prominent scholars of the Muʿtazila was Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad (935–1025 AD). From

17931-573: The wake of the Ash'arite synthesis between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, its original form survived among a minority of mostly Hanbalite scholars. While Ash'arism and Maturidism are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", traditionalist theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith. Islamic theology experienced further developments among Shia theologians . The study of, and commentaries on Quran and hadith, debates about ijtihad and taqlid and

18070-435: The weakness of the central authority was the Shi'a ulama. According to Garthwaite (2010), "the ulama constituted one institution that not only provided continuity, but gradually asserted its role over and against royal authority." A process of change began which continued throughout the 19th century and into the present. Already some of the last Safavids, Sulayman Shah (r. 1666–1694) and Tahmasp II (r. 1722–1732) had sought

18209-577: The works of Muhammad ash-Shawkani, whose writings did also influence the doctrine of the Salafi movement in the Arab Middle East and worldwide. Indonesian Islamic Union Party Indonesian Islamic Union Party ( Indonesian : Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia ) was an Islamic political party in Indonesia before and after independence. In 1973 it was merged into the United Development Party . The Sarekat Islam (Islamic Association)

18348-456: Was deposed just two years later. The PKB subsequently split into two warring factions, one led by Gus Dur's daughter, Yenny Wahid. An attempt in 2008 by Gus Dur to involve President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in resolving the dispute failed, and the PKB vote in the 2009 elections was half that of the previous vote in 2004. At its 2010 conference, held in Makassar , the NU decided not to discuss

18487-661: Was a pre-war political organization in the then- Dutch East Indies . Following a split brought about by the increasing influence of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), at the organization's 1923 conference, Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto and Agus Salim set up the Islamic Union Party ( Indonesian : Partai Sarekat Islam - PSI ) to rid the organization of the PKI. The PSII supported Sukarno's efforts to unite Indonesian political organizations following

18626-533: Was amongst the first members of the ulama who travelled to Europe. As a religious counsellor to a delegation by the Egyptian khedive Muhammad Ali Pasha he stayed in Paris from 1826 to 1831. His report "The Extraction of Gold or an Overview of Paris" ( Taḫlīṣ al-ibrīz fī talḫīṣ Bārīz ) (1849) included some outlines of future reforms and potential improvements in his native country. Although al-Tahtawi had gone through

18765-471: Was an Ottoman Tunisian alim and statesman who reformed the administration and jurisdiction of the province. He was able to explain his ideas in French ( Réformes nécessaires aux États musulmans – Necessary reforms of the Muslim states. Paris, 1868), which he had learned whilst representing his sovereign Ahmad Bey at the court of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1855. In contrast to al-Tahtawi, Hayreddin Pasha used

18904-588: Was effectively criticised by al-Ghazali , one of the most influential scholars of Islam. In his works Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Mizan al-'amal (Criterion of Action) and Kimiya-yi sa'ādat (The Alchemy of Happiness), he refuted the Philosophy of Ibn Sīnā , and demonstrated that the Aristotelian ethics is incompatible with Islamic ethics: The latter is based on

19043-795: Was elected chair of the Supreme Council for the 2010-2015 period. Under the Executive Council, there are province-level Regional Boards, autonomous bodies, institutes, and committees, with the structure extending down to Sub-Branch Representative Council Boards in villages. Ulema In Islam , the ulama ( / ˈ uː l ə ˌ m ɑː / ; Arabic : علماء , romanized :  ʿulamāʾ , lit.   'the learned ones'; singular Arabic : عالِم , romanized :  ʿālim ; feminine singular alimah ; plural aalimath ), also spelled ulema , are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered

19182-413: Was the foremost campaigner for GAPI's 1939 call for an Indonesian parliament, which Abikusno Tjokrosujoso said had first been demanded by the Sarekat Islam under Tjokroaminoto. Despite the PSII's dislike of working with the "cooperating" parties within GAPI, the party explained that support for a parliament was not a softening of its non-cooperative stance: the party would cooperate with the Dutch only after

19321-430: Was the founder of the Safavid dynasty . Shah Ismail I proclaimed the Twelver Shi'a as the new Persian state religion. To propagate the Safavid faith , he invited ulama from Qom , Jabal 'Āmil in southern Lebanon and Syria to travel around Iran and promote the Shi'a doctrine. In 1533, Shah Tahmasp I commissioned a new edition of the Safvat as-safa , Shaikh Ṣāfī's genealogy. It was rewritten in order to support

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