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150-635: Burroughs wrote Naked Lunch while living in the Tangier International Zone , which inspired the book's Interzone setting. There, he witnessed escalating tensions between European powers and the Moroccan Nationalist Movement , which are reflected in Interzone's fictional political struggles. Burroughs also struggled with opioid addiction, which the novel describes extensively, although critics disagree whether

300-617: A Dahir (decree) of Sultan Abd al-Rahman mandated them to establish a Sanitary Council ( French : conseil sanitaire ), chaired by the envoys of the represented nations on a rotating basis in the name of the Makhzen . In the early 1860s, the foreign nations for the creation of the Cape Spartel lighthouse  [ fr ] , inaugurated in 1864. In 1879, a Dahir of Sultan Hassan I created Tangier's Hygiene Commission ( French : commission d'hygiène ), which coexisted with

450-506: A Sickness". Burroughs originally wrote the deposition in response to a legal hearing in Paris; the text asserts that he and his novel do not promote the use of drugs. Allen Ginsberg criticized this appendix; he found it overly moralizing and felt Burroughs was avoiding responsibility for his own work. In 1962, the novel was translated into German, but the publishers intentionally left the most explicit sections in untranslated English. In 1964, it

600-673: A Sultan-appointed governor, the Naib reduced to a largely ceremonial role since Morocco under the protectorates no longer had an autonomous foreign policy, the extraterritorial courts under the respective foreign delegations (downgraded back to consulate status for the same reason), the Sanitary Council, the Hygiene Commission, the French and Spanish Tabors , and assorted specialized committees. Negotiations restarted after

750-507: A US release, although he also felt they constituted a political argument against capital punishment. Ultimately, Grove decided to publish the novel uncensored, encouraged by the praise the book had received from Norman Mailer and Mary McCarthy . Naked Lunch was first published in the US on November 20, 1962, and sold over 14,000 copies in the first 4 months. The US edition included a new appendix by Burroughs titled "Deposition: Testimony Concerning

900-590: A century after the end of English rule in 1684, Tangier was primarily a military town, the main fortified outpost on the Moroccan Sultanate's side of the Strait of Gibraltar . This role evolved after Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah designated it in 1777 as the main point of contact between the Moroccan monarchy and European commercial interests, leading to the gradual relocation of a number of consulates to

1050-573: A charter to smooth the transition and extend the Zone's tax and other privileges for some more time. The Moroccan monarchy's attitudes towards the country's northern region turned sharply negative with the 1958 Rif riots , however. By Dahir of 17 October 1959, Mohammed V abrogated the charter with only a six-months notice period. The expiration of that transition in April 1960 marked the final end of Tangier's special status. The Zone's governance framework

1200-400: A conventional narrative before fragmenting into its own series of episodic routines. Burroughs mostly arranged the novel's chapters following the "arbitrary" order in which he received the galley proofs , but he consciously moved the "Hauser and O'Brien" chapter to the end, creating a frame narrative in which William Lee evades "the heat" of the law. Lee's escape from the agents at the end of

1350-588: A dangerous drug used primarily in archaic behavioural therapies. In his Deposition: Testimony Concerning a Sickness in the introduction to later editions of Naked Lunch (first published in 1959), William S. Burroughs wrote that apomorphine treatment was the only effective cure to opioid addiction he has encountered: The apomorphine cure is qualitatively different from other methods of cure. I have tried them all. Short reduction, slow reduction, cortisone , antihistamines , tranquilizers , sleeping cures, tolserol, reserpine . None of these cures lasted beyond

1500-559: A dissent, Justice Paul Reardon insisted the book was "literary sewage". Grove Press leveraged the trial as a marketing strategy. Grove compared Naked Lunch to Ulysses , Lady Chatterley's Lover , and Tropic of Cancer , which had also been challenged for obscenity, and included transcripts of the court testimonies in a new edition of the book. On January 28, 1965, the city of Los Angeles tried two people for selling copies of Naked Lunch , arguing they had violated California's obscenity statute. Municipal Judge Alan Campbell described

1650-434: A divisive critical response. The book's admirers have compared it to the satires of Jonathan Swift and the religious works of Dante Aligheri and Hieronymous Bosch . Its detractors have compared it to pornography, often calling it monotonous and boring. The book has been considered dystopian science fiction , postmodern , parodic , and picaresque . Its experimental techniques have been highly influential on rock music and

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1800-574: A double agent, and Lee is himself controlled by addiction. Robin Lydenberg observes that all three non-Factionalist parties represent homogenization and opposition to individual expression. Likewise, Dr. Benway and other scientists attempt to "improve" humanity, but show contempt for the diversity and complexity of human life. Ron Loewinsohn identifies the political parties as representing different methods of international control: Liquefactionists as fascism , Divisionists as colonialism , and Senders as

1950-432: A few hours. These succeeding injections should be quite small, 3 to 6 min. being sufficient. Doses of this size are rarely emetic. There is little facial pallor, a sensation as of the commencement of sea-sickness, perhaps a slight malaise with a sudden subsidence of the craving for alcohol, followed by a light and short doze. He also noted there appeared to be a significant prejudice against the use of apomorphine, both from

2100-544: A further guarantee of British rights and a Spanish promise not to fortify the area. Tangier was effectively annexed to the Spanish Protectorate of Morocco on 23 November 1940. In May 1944, Franco expelled all German diplomats from the Zone. A quadripartite conference (France, Soviet Union, UK and United States) met in Paris in August 1945, with Francoist Spain excluded at Soviet insistence. It concluded with

2250-411: A grain of apomorphine should be injected during the night at nine o'clock, one o'clock, and five o'clock, but that if he drinks the injection should be given soon after the drink and may be increased to two hourly intervals. In the morning at about ten he is again given one or two glasses of whisky and water ... and again one-twentieth of a grain [3.24 mg] of apomorphine is injected ... The next day he

2400-402: A metaphor for broader social problems and obsessions. David Ayers interprets heroin as Burroughs' "paradigm" for understanding systems of control. However, Frank McConnell argues that Naked Lunch is straightforwardly about heroin addiction in itself, and should not be read as symbolic. Lydenberg argues that Burroughs' parenthetical asides challenge the reader's instinct to "evade" the darkness of

2550-405: A mistake. Reading aloud from the manuscript for Queer , Allen Ginsberg misread the phrase "a leer of nakedlust wrenched" as "a leer of naked lunch", and Jack Kerouac suggested Burroughs embrace this mangled wording as a title. The title originally referred to a planned three-part work made up of "Junk", "Queer" and "Yage", corresponding to his first three manuscripts, before it came to describe

2700-563: A pair of aging cojones... — Atrophied Preface, Naked Lunch The majority of Naked Lunch does not follow any clear structure, chronology, or geography. Instead, it abruptly jumps between a series of loosely-connected episodes (called "routines" by Burroughs), which can be read in any order. Although the novel is book-ended with a realistic crime story, most of these routines are abstract and surreal, blurring any distinction between fantasy and reality. These routines are sporadically interrupted by parenthetical asides, which comment on or clarify

2850-406: A paroxysm of dipsomania [an episode of intense alcoholic craving]... in minute doses it is much more rapidly efficient in stilling the dipsomaniac craving than strychnine or atropine… Four or even 3m [minim – roughly 60 microlitres] of the solution usually checks for some hours the incessant demands of the patient… when he awakes from the apomorphine sleep he may still be demanding alcohol, though he

3000-503: A potential therapeutic under the amyloid hypothesis . Two routes of administration are currently clinically utilized: subcutaneous (either as intermittent injections or continuous infusion) and sublingual. Other non-invasive administration routes were investigated as a substitute for parenteral administration, reaching different preclinical and clinical stages. These include: peroral, nasal, pulmonary, transdermal, rectal, and buccal, as well as iontophoresis methods. Apomorphine

3150-415: A purpose for which it was championed by the author William S. Burroughs . Burroughs and others claimed that it was a "metabolic regulator" with a restorative dimension to a damaged or dysfunctional dopaminergic system. Despite anecdotal evidence that this offers a plausible route to an abstinence-based mode, no clinical trials have ever tested this hypothesis. A recent study indicates that apomorphine might be

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3300-511: A racist County Clerk and his addiction to Eukodol . Dr. Benway's dehumanizing Rehabilitation Center parodies the real-life Lexington Medical Center , which once treated Burroughs for opioid addiction. Loewinsohn interprets Interzone and its political power struggles as "a metaphor for Burroughs himself", with the political parties reflecting Burroughs' romantic struggles, his history of self-harm, and his attempts to communicate with his readers. The novel describes Interzone's four political parties:

3450-457: A razor-sharp beak of black bone with which they frequently tear each other to shreds in fights over clients. These creatures secrete an addicting fluid from their erect penises which prolongs life by slowing metabolism. — Naked Lunch Burroughs' writing aims to provoke disgust. The novel contains many explicit sexual scenes, emphasizing "sterile, inhuman, malevolent" acts of castration , sodomy , pederasty , and sadomasochism ; in particular,

3600-508: A short story by Jack Keruoac titled "Old Angel Midnight". Joel Sprayregen, Big Table' s attorney, advocated for the magazine's literary value and insisted it was not obscene under the criteria established in Roth v. United States . Pete Carroll, the magazine's co-founder, testified that he considered Burroughs a satirist in the tradition of Jonathan Swift and Nathanael West and that his social criticism required vulgar language. William Duvall,

3750-556: A special status and defined its geographical boundaries. A technical committee of France, Spain and the UK met in Madrid in 1913, but only reached agreement in November 1914, after World War I had started, which allowed Spain, which was unsatisfied with the outcome, to suspend its implementation for several years. Meanwhile, Tangier still operated under an ad hoc governance regime with

3900-533: A suitable marker for assessing central dopamine system alterations associated with chronic heroin consumption. There is, however, no clinical evidence that apomorphine is an effective and safe treatment regimen for opiate addiction . Apomorphine is used in advanced Parkinson's disease intermittent hypomobility ("off" episodes), where a decreased response to an anti-Parkinson drug such as L -DOPA causes muscle stiffness and loss of muscle control. While apomorphine can be used in combination with L -DOPA ,

4050-602: A temporary Anglo-French Agreement of 31 August 1945, in which the two powers made arrangements for the re-establishment of the Zone's international institutional framework, invited the United States and the Soviet Union to join it, and reversed the advantages that Italy had secured under the 1928 Protocol. The intent at the time was to establish a new permanent statute following an ad hoc conference. The Anglo-French Agreement entered into force on 11 October 1945, when

4200-425: A treatment for erectile dysfunction by TAP Pharmaceuticals under the brand name Uprima. In 2000, TAP withdrew its new drug application after an FDA review panel raised questions about the drug's safety, due to many clinical trial subjects fainting after taking the drug. Apomorphine is reported to be an inhibitor of amyloid beta protein fiber formation, whose presence is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease , and

4350-466: A unique and complex system that involved various European nations, the United States (mainly after 1945), and the Sultan of Morocco , himself under a French protectorate . Due to its status as an international zone, Tangier played a crucial role for Moroccan Nationalists, who wanted independence, to establish international contacts and recruit allies as well as organising gatherings and events. For nearly

4500-454: A work like Naked Lunch if he were still alive. Professor Thomas Jackson also compared the novel's explicit passages to Dante Alighieri's scenes of cannibalism and scatology, and the novel's structure to Ezra Pound 's Cantos and T.S. Eliot 's The Waste Land . Paul Hollander argued the novel showcased the depravity of addiction, and John Sturrock suggested it helped readers understand drug-induced psychosis . Allen Ginsberg discussed

4650-411: Is allowed to eat what he likes, he may drink as much tea as he likes ... He will be strong enough to get up and two days later he leaves the home. However, even in 1934 he was suspicious of the idea that the treatment was pure conditioned reflex – "though vomiting is one of the ways that apomorphine relives the patient, I do not believe it to be its main therapeutic effect." – and by 1948 he wrote: It

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4800-425: Is an important target in the signaling pathway, and is connected to several neurological disorders. Shortage or excess of dopamine can prevent proper function and signaling of these receptors leading to disease states. Apomorphine improves motor function by activating dopamine receptors in the nigrostriatal pathway , the limbic system , the hypothalamus , and the pituitary gland . It also increases blood flow to

4950-469: Is caused by apomorphine increasing arterial blood supply to the penis . This side effect has been exploited in studies attempting to treat erectile dysfunction . Apomorphine's R-enantiomer is an agonist of both D 1 and D 2 dopamine receptors , with higher activity at D 2 . The members of the D 2 subfamily, consisting of D 2 , D 3 , and D 4 receptors, are inhibitory G protein–coupled receptors . The D 4 receptor in particular

5100-437: Is never then so insistent as before. Accordingly it may be necessary to repeat the dose, and even to continue to give it twice or three times a day. Such repeated doses, however, do not require to be so large: 4 or even 3m is usually sufficient. This use of small, continuous doses (1/30th of a grain, or 2.16 mg by Douglas) of apomorphine to reduce alcoholic craving comes some time before Pavlov 's discovery and publication of

5250-455: Is now twenty-five years since I began treating cases of anxiety and alcoholism with apomorphine, and I read my first paper before this Society fourteen years ago. Up till then I had thought, and, unfortunately, I said in my paper, that the virtue of the treatment lay in the conditioned reflex of aversion produced in the patient. This statement is not even a half truth… I have been forced to the conclusion that apomorphine has some further action than

5400-546: Is partly autobiographical. The first chapter retells events previously described in Burroughs' semi-autobiographical first novel Junkie . This retelling introduces a new character called "the fruit", who serves as a parody of the implied reader of Junkie ; the fruit presents himself as hip and street-smart, but Lee mocks his naivety and plans to sell him catnip by claiming it's cannabis . Other routines are also based on Burroughs' real life, such as Lee's interactions with

5550-490: Is real, while AJ's is simulated. Meanwhile, Freeland, the novel's stand-in for Scandinavia , is described as a "police state without police"; its citizens have become so neurotic that they obsessively monitor themselves. Interzone is also marked by a violent struggle between Nationalists and Imperialists, reflecting the political situation Burroughs observed in Tangiers. The novel does not align itself with either side. One of

5700-425: Is renewed interest in the use of apomorphine to treat addiction, in both smoking cessation and alcoholism. As the drug is known to be reasonably safe for use in humans, it is a viable target for repurposing. Apomorphine has been researched as a possible treatment for erectile dysfunction and female hypoactive sexual desire disorder, though its efficacy has been limited. Nonetheless, it was under development as

5850-399: Is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease . It is a potent emetic and should not be administered without an antiemetic such as domperidone . The emetic properties of apomorphine are exploited in veterinary medicine to induce therapeutic emesis in canines that have recently ingested toxic or foreign substances. Apomorphine was also used as a private treatment of heroin addiction ,

6000-450: Is used to inducing vomiting in dogs after ingestion of various toxins or foreign bodies. It can be given subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intravenously, or, when a tablet is crushed, in the conjunctiva of the eye. The oral route is ineffective, as apomorphine cannot cross the blood–brain barrier fast enough, and blood levels don't reach a high enough concentration to stimulate the chemoreceptor trigger zone. It can remove around 40–60% of

6150-460: Is usual to him ... The small dose of apomorphine, one-twentieth of a grain [3.24 mg], is now given subcutaneously into his thigh, and he is told that he will be sick in a quarter of an hour. A glass of whisky and water and a bottle of whisky are left by his bedside. At six o'clock (four hours later) he is again visited and the same treatment is again administered ... The nurse is told in confidence that if he does not drink, one-fortieth [1.62 mg] of

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6300-546: The -morphine suffix. Contrary to its name, apomorphine does not actually contain morphine or its skeleton, nor does it bind to opioid receptors . The apo- prefix relates to it being a morphine derivative ("[comes] from morphine"). Historically, apomorphine has been tried for a variety of uses, including as a way to relieve anxiety and craving in alcoholics, an emetic (to induce vomiting), for treating stereotypies (repeated behaviour) in farmyard animals, and more recently in treating erectile dysfunction . Currently, apomorphine

6450-707: The Beat generation along with Burroughs himself. In a letter to Ginsberg, Burroughs explicitly identified the novel's Interzone as a stand-in for the Tangier International Zone. While living in Tangier, Burroughs witnessed violent clashes between Moroccan nationalists and French authorities over its political status. Burroughs did not take a strong stance on the conflict, at one point calling himself "the most politically neutral man in Africa". He defended

6600-537: The Francoist State publicly considered the occupation a temporary protection measure, occasionally presented as a way to shield Tangier against the risk of German or Italian invasion and thus safeguard Tangier's neutrality. The Zone's key institutions, the Committee of Control and Legislative Assembly, were abolished on 3 November 1940, triggering a diplomatic dispute between Britain and Spain that led to

6750-542: The LD 50 s in mice were 300 mg/kg for the oral route, 160 mg/kg for intraperitoneal , and 56 mg/kg intravenous. Apomorphine has a catechol structure similar to that of dopamine. Several techniques exist for the creation of apomorphine from morphine. In the past, morphine had been combined with hydrochloric acid at high temperatures (around 150 °C) to achieve a low yield of apomorphine, ranging anywhere from 0.6% to 46%. More recent techniques create

6900-743: The Permanent Court of International Justice in the Hague . Executive power was vested in an Administrator, except for the (majority) Muslim and Jewish communities under the authority of the Mendoub. The Administrator was formally appointed by the Sultan, on a proposal by the Committee of Control. In the interwar period all Administrators were French, until the Spanish takeover of June 1940. They had two deputies, one French and one British. After

7050-544: The Sargasso Sea , including Meet Me in Sargasso and The Sargasso Trail , possibly inspired by William Hope Hodgson 's Sargasso Sea Stories . Burroughs had also referred to Tangier's Café Central as "The Sargasso". Near the end of the novel, the protagonist William Lee describes himself as "occluded from space-time like an eel's ass occludes when he stops eating on the way to the Sargasso". The final title began as

7200-547: The State Bank of Morocco in Tangier, and also created new bodies for the city's management such as an Office of Public Works that in 1909 took over part of the services that had been managed by the Hygiene Commission. The Act of Algeciras also resulted in the creation of a dual police force under foreign control, the Tabor divided between French and Spanish components, respectively in charge of public order outside and inside

7350-408: The blood–brain barrier . Apomorphine possesses affinity for the following receptors (note that a higher K i indicates a lower affinity): It has a K i of over 10,000 nM (and thus negligible affinity) for β-adrenergic , H 1 , and mACh . Apomorphine has a high clearance rate (3–5 L/kg/hr) and is mainly metabolized and excreted by the liver . It is likely that while

7500-634: The cyberpunk genre. Naked Lunch is considered one of the defining texts of the Beat Generation . In 1923, European powers established the Tangier International Zone in Northern Morocco . To ensure the area's neutrality, the Zone was overseen by representatives from multiple European nations alongside the sultan of Morocco . This government was unable to effectively regulate drugs or prostitution, and American residents were not subject to Moroccan laws. William S. Burroughs moved to

7650-413: The cytochrome P450 system plays a minor role, most of apomorphine's metabolism happens via auto- oxidation , O -glucuronidation , O -methylation , N -demethylation , and sulfation . Only 3–4% of the apomorphine is excreted unchanged and into the urine. The half-life is 30–60 minutes, and the effects of the injection last for up to 90 minutes. Toxicity depends on the route of administration;

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7800-510: The soft power and cultural influence of the United States. He notes that the Factualists, who infiltrate and undermine the other parties, mirror Burroughs' understanding of how apomorphine works to relieve opioid addiction. He also notes that this undercover infiltration often leads to the Factualists acting similarly to their opposition, such as AJ and Hassan both staging sadomasochistic parties, but with crucial differences: Hassan's cruelty

7950-401: The supplementary motor area and to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (stimulation of which has been found to reduce the tardive dyskinesia effects of L -DOPA ). Parkinson's has also been found to have excess iron at the sites of neurodegeneration; both the ( R )- and ( S )-enantiomers of apomorphine are potent iron chelators and radical scavengers . Apomorphine also decreases

8100-408: The "on" state and using apomorphine as an effective monotherapy . The main and absolute contraindication to using apomorphine is the concurrent use of adrenergic receptor antagonists; combined, they cause a severe drop in blood pressure and fainting . Alcohol causes an increased frequency of orthostatic hypotension (a sudden drop in blood pressure when getting up), and can also increase

8250-661: The Act of Algeciras of 7 April 1906, from which appeals went to the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland in Lausanne . The Mixed Courts were initially located together with the International Administration on Boulevard Pasteur. In 1937, they moved to a purpose-built art deco courthouse on rue Washington (now avenue Omar Ibn Al Khattab ), which after Moroccan independence became

8400-526: The Belgian, British, Spanish, French, and Italian governments, They worked with two prosecutors, one French and one Spanish. As a result of the creation of the Mixed Courts, the participating European powers withdrew the consular courts that previously exercised jurisdiction there. From the start, the Mixed Courts were considered a unique experiment given their international setup. The applicable law

8550-521: The Committee of Control practically could not reach a quorum. Fascist Italy had declined to ratify the Paris Convention as it insisted on equal status as a "great Mediterranean power" and was offended about not having been invited to the negotiation in Paris; the United States, meanwhile, preferred to keep their freedom of action. Both consequently kept their nationals under their respective systems of consular courts. Italy's demand to join

8700-483: The Court of the Mendoub and the respective Islamic and Rabbinical jurisdictions under the Mendoub's authority. American citizens remained under the pre-1923 extraterritorial jurisdiction of the consular court of the United States, except for matters of property title and Islamic law. The State Bank of Morocco , whose head office was in Tangier, remained under the jurisdiction of a special tribunal created by Article 45 of

8850-712: The Liquefactionists want to physically dissolve and absorb other people, the Senders want to control other people's minds via telepathy , and the Divisionists want to endlessly replicate themselves. These parties each represent threats to individualism, and are opposed by the fourth party, the Factualists, to which Lee belongs. The novel is especially critical of the Senders, describing them as "the Human Virus", interested in control solely for its own sake, and

9000-583: The Massachusetts trial, now recognized as a landmark censorship case, defense attorney Edward de Grazia called writers such as Allen Ginsberg , John Ciardi , and Norman Mailer to testify to the book's literary merit. Although the court initially ruled the book was in fact obscene, this decision was overturned by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court , which allowed the book to be sold. Naked Lunch has received

9150-740: The Mendoub, which in practice made the Assembly a French-dominated body. After World War II , a new home was built for the Legislative Assembly in the Marshan neighborhood of Tangier, across the street from the Mendoub's Residence . Judicial power over the Zone's residents from the participating powers resided in the Mixed Courts. Under the initial Paris Convention of 1923, these had four judges (two British, one French and one Spanish), expanded in 1928 to five, respectively appointed by

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9300-516: The Mixed Courts (judiciary); and the Mendoub , or representative of the Sultan, with executive and judiciary authority over matters exclusively related to the Muslim and Jewish communities. The Committee of Control was formed by the Consuls of the participating powers. Its chair rotated on a yearly basis. It held a veto right over the Legislative Assembly's bills, without right of appeal except before

9450-634: The Mixed Courts was subsequently renovated. The house of the Legislative Assembly became the Marshan Palace used as a ceremonial venue by the Moroccan Monarchy. The Mendoubia became a commercial court and eventually a memorial museum of the Tangier Speech in the early 21st century. 35°46′N 5°48′W  /  35.767°N 5.800°W  / 35.767; -5.800 Apomorphine Apomorphine , sold under

9600-540: The Netherlands (12 June 1929). That revision also allowed the final abolition of Tangier's former ad hoc institutions, the Sanitary Council and Hygiene Commission, which Italy had previously insisted to maintain. Spanish troops occupied Tangier on 14 June 1940, the same day Paris fell to the Germans . Despite calls by the writer Rafael Sánchez Mazas and other Spanish nationalists to annex " Tánger español ",

9750-499: The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the UK, and the United States), the future arrangements were not and would be decided solely by the Moroccan authorities. The resulting protocol signed on 29 October 1956 returned Tangier to full Moroccan sovereignty with immediate effect, while the operation of its international institutions was extended for practical purposes only until the end of 1956. On 24 August 1957, Mohammed V granted

9900-431: The Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, the UK, and the U.S., as well as Spanish and French prosecutors. Even after that reform, it remained affected by shortcomings that included inadequate representation of Muslim Moroccans and an insufficient number of judges. The Mixed Courts were only one component of Tangier's complex system of jurisdictions. Cases pertaining exclusively to the Muslim and Jewish communities were handled by

10050-465: The Nobel Prize. A. N. Ernst then discovered in 1965 that apomorphine was a powerful stimulant of dopamine receptors. This, along with the use of sublingual apomorphine tablets, led to a renewed interest in the use of apomorphine as a treatment for alcoholism. A series of studies of non-emetic apomorphine in the treatment of alcoholism were published, with mostly positive results. However, there

10200-834: The Post Office's findings. The Post Office did not appeal this decision. Inspired by the attention around Big Table' s excerpts, Olympia Press reconsidered its rejection and published the novel. Olympia first published the English-language Naked Lunch in France in July 1959. Grove Press bought the American publication rights, and initially planned to exclude the chapters describing Hassan's "Rumpus Room" and A.J.'s party. Burroughs himself had called those sections "pornographic" and expected they would be cut from

10350-406: The Sanitary Council and gradually took shape in the 1880s as a de facto municipal council, with members appointed by the foreign diplomats but also the Sultan and prominent local residents. The Hygiene Commission was chaired by the foreign envoys, on three-months turns with succession based on alphabetical order of nationality. Its leading executive was the vice chair, a position held for most of

10500-414: The Spanish government withdrew its military force and handed over the territory's government to the revived international institutions. From then on, the U.S. participated in the Committee of Control and appointed a judge to the Mixed Courts. The Soviet Union soon relinquished interest in Tangier, however, which allowed Spain to participate again in the international framework albeit without positions in

10650-426: The Spanish takeover, they appear to have been at least partly located at the nearby French Consulate . A new building constructed to house the International Administration was completed in the early 1950s. The Administrator nominated the (generally Spanish) head of the urban police, for ratification by the Legislative Assembly; the police was complemented by a gendarmerie, headed by a Belgian captain. These replaced

10800-501: The Tangier International Zone in 1954, shortly after the publication of his first novel Junkie . Burroughs was attracted by the zone's reputation for allowing drug use and homosexuality, as portrayed in the works of Paul Bowles , and declared his intention to "steep myself in vice". Bowles himself briefly appears in Naked Lunch under the name Andrew Keif. In Tangier, Burroughs became severely addicted to Eukodol , eventually using

10950-639: The Tangier Zone met in June 1956 and proposed a protocol for a temporary regime, which was signed by Moroccan Foreign Minister Ahmed Balafrej on behalf of Sultan Mohammed V in Rabat on 5 July 1956. As a consequence, the position of Administrator was abolished and replaced on 10 July 1956 by that of a Moroccan governor or Amel , which was immediately assumed by the Mendoub Ahmad at-Tazi. Simultaneously,

11100-517: The Tangier police force was transferred under Moroccan authority. A conference was subsequently held in October 1956, opening in Fedala (later Mohammedia ) on the 8th and transferred to Tangier on the 10th. Balafrej insisted that, while the abolition of the international status was a matter of negotiation with the foreign powers represented in the Committee of Control (namely Belgium, France, Italy,

11250-483: The UK, however, the publication of J. Y. Dent's (who later went on to treat Burroughs) 1934 paper "Apomorphine in the treatment of Anxiety States" laid out the main method by which apomorphine would be used to treat alcoholism in Britain. His method in that paper is clearly influenced by the then-novel idea of aversion: He is given his favourite drink, and his favourite brand of that drink ... He takes it stronger than

11400-478: The United Kingdom, and the United States; and a separate convention signed by France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom, by which the Mixed Courts were reformed into an International Jurisdiction with more judges. This entered into force by Dahir of the Sultan on 10 June 1953. Following the end of the French protectorate on 2 March 1956 and of the Spanish one on 7 April 1956, the Committee of Control of

11550-483: The administration, and Italy to recover its former position in the Mixed Courts. . A new status was eventually negotiated from August 1952 and finalized on 10 November 1952, with two documents: a protocol amending the Anglo-French Agreement of 31 August 1945 on various aspects of the Zone's administration, signed and subsequently ratified by Belgium, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,

11700-466: The antiemetic. Other side effects include orthostatic hypotension and resultant fainting, sleepiness , dizziness , runny nose , sweating , paleness , and flushing . More serious side effects include dyskinesias (especially when taking L -DOPA), fluid accumulation in the limbs ( edema ), suddenly falling asleep, confusion and hallucinations , increased heart rate and heart palpitations , and persistent erections ( priapism ). The priapism

11850-531: The apomorphine in a similar fashion, by heating it in the presence of any acid that will promote the essential dehydration rearrangement of morphine-type alkaloids , such as phosphoric acid . The method then deviates by including a water scavenger, which is essential to remove the water produced by the reaction that can react with the product and lead to decreased yield. The scavenger can be any reagent that will irreversibly react with water such as phthalic anhydride or titanium chloride . The temperature required for

12000-534: The associations of its name and doctors being reluctant to give hypodermic injections to alcoholics. In the US, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act made working with any morphine derivatives extremely hard, despite apomorphine itself not being an opiate. In the 1950s the neurotransmitter dopamine was discovered in the brain by Katharine Montagu , and characterised as a neurotransmitter a year later by Arvid Carlsson , for which he would be awarded

12150-414: The book a parody with elements of spy fiction , detective fiction , science fiction , and horror fiction ., or a dystopian science fiction novel in the tradition of Brave New World and Nineteen Eighty-Four . Marshall McLuhan considered the novel an "anti-Utopia" response to Arthur Rimbaud 's Illuminations . The novel has been described as postmodern and "proto-postmodern". The novel

12300-464: The book as a metaphor for addiction in general, analyzed connections between the novel's depictions of sexuality and drugs, and read his poem "On Burroughs' Work" from the stand. In his cross-examinations , William Cowin suggested the novel was anti-Catholic, quizzed the witnesses on whether they could remember its characters, and challenged them to interpret provocative passages like the talking anus scene. He did not call any witnesses to testify against

12450-446: The book by treating its disturbing elements as symbols or allegories , and instead show that Burroughs insists on a literal reading. Frederick Whiting emphasizes that the novel's drug motif should be seen as a metonym for social and economic issues, not a metaphor. The novel has been described as "an essentially nihilistic work" and "consistently hostile, contemptuous, forcefully hateful [...] without joy." Robin Lydenberg suggests that

12600-549: The book is portrayed as "spiritual and linguistically radical" freedom. Ron Loewinsohn interprets the book's structure as a katabasis . The novel begins with Lee descending into an underground subway, becomes increasingly surreal until Lee reaches the chaotic Hell of Interzone, then ends with Lee emerging back into the world above. On stools covered in white satin sit naked Mugwumps sucking translucent, colored syrups through alabaster straws. Mugwumps have no liver and nourish themselves exclusively on sweets. Thin, purple-blue lips cover

12750-418: The book later published as Naked Lunch . Ginsberg would later interpret and expand on the title in his poem On Burroughs' Work , published in the collection Reality Sandwiches : A Naked Lunch is natural to us,     we eat reality sandwiches. But allegories are so much lettuce.     Don't hide the madness. Burroughs himself wrote that "The title means exactly what

12900-632: The book's most political routines mocks the Nationalist Party Leader, describing him as a "gangster in drag" who cares only about his own position, not the residents of Interzone. However, the Capitalists who oppose him are equally unconcerned with Interzone's residents, who they see as targets to exploit. This skepticism of both sides reflects Burroughs' own ambivalence towards Moroccan nationalism. The novel's routines emphasize addiction , especially to heroin , which can be read as

13050-451: The book's vulgarity overwhelmed any literary value it had, and that nearly every page contained something obscene. His prosecution emphasized the novel's lack of structure, arguing that the most explicit passages could be judged in isolation without considering the book as a whole. De Grazia called authors and professors to testify about the novel's social value and literary merit. Norman Mailer praised Burroughs' literary talent and defended

13200-544: The book. On March 23, 1965, the court ruled that the novel was in fact obscene. Grove appealed this decision to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court . On July 7, 1966, based on new obscenity guidelines from the United States Supreme Court in Memoirs v. Massachusetts , the state supreme court overturned the ban, arguing that the testimony had demonstrated the novel's social and literary value. In

13350-426: The brand name Apokyn among others, is a type of aporphine having activity as a non- selective dopamine agonist which activates both D 2 -like and, to a much lesser extent, D 1 -like receptors . It also acts as an antagonist of 5-HT 2 and α-adrenergic receptors with high affinity . The compound is historically a morphine decomposition product made by boiling morphine with concentrated acid, hence

13500-400: The breakdown of dopamine in the brain (though it inhibits its synthesis as well). It is an upregulator of certain neural growth factors, in particular NGF but not BDNF , epigenetic downregulation of which has been associated with addictive behaviour in rats. Apomorphine causes vomiting by acting on dopamine receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone of the medulla ; this activates

13650-698: The chances of pneumonia and heart attacks . Dopamine antagonists , by their nature of competing for sites at dopamine receptors, reduce the effectiveness of the agonistic apomorphine. IV administration of apomorphine is highly discouraged, as it can crystallize in the veins and create a blood clot ( thrombus ) and block a pulmonary artery ( pulmonary embolism ). Nausea and vomiting are common side effects when first beginning therapy with apomorphine; antiemetics such as trimethobenzamide or domperidone, dopamine antagonists, are often used while first starting apomorphine. Around 50% of people grow tolerant enough to apomorphine's emetic effects that they can discontinue

13800-553: The city by the main European nations. Great Britain, an ally of the Sultanate since 1713 as it needed Moroccan help to provision Gibraltar , moved its consul from Tétouan to Tangier in the 1770s, and the consul of France similarly moved in from Rabat in the early 1780s. By 1830, Denmark, France, Portugal, Sardinia , Spain, Sweden, Tuscany , the United Kingdom, and the United States all had consulates in Tangier. In 1851,

13950-551: The city courthouse (French: palais de justice ). The Mendoub had direct authority over the (majority) Muslim and Jewish communities, similar to that of Pashas or Qadis in other parts of Morocco under the Protectorates. He also chaired the Legislative Assembly, albeit without a vote of his own, and enacted its laws and regulations, but only after prior countersignature by the Chair of the Committee of Control. His office

14100-725: The city limits. In March 1912, the Treaty of Fes established the French protectorate in Morocco and raised again the status of Tangier. Both France and Spain wanted to control the city, while the United Kingdom wanted to neutralise it to maintain its dominance of the Strait of Gibraltar . Later that year, Article 7 of the Treaty Between France and Spain Regarding Morocco stipulated that Tangier would be granted

14250-601: The contents in the stomach. One of the reasons apomorphine is a preferred drug is its reversibility: in cases of prolonged vomiting, the apomorphine can be reversed with dopamine antagonists like the phenothiazines (for example, acepromazine ). Giving apomorphine after giving acepromazine, however, will no longer stimulate vomiting, because apomorphine's target receptors are already occupied. An animal who undergoes severe respiratory depression due to apomorphine can be treated with naloxone . Apomorphine does not work in cats , who have too few dopamine receptors. Mdo-npa,

14400-408: The decade from 1888 to 1898 by Spanish physician Severo Cenarro  [ es ] . In 1887, Greek-American community leader Ion Hanford Perdicaris advocated a special status for Tangier as a neutral free port under the great powers ' joint control. In 1892, the Hygiene Commission took over some of the tasks of the Sanitary Council (which nevertheless continued to exist in parallel), and

14550-459: The drug every two hours. He had previously been addicted to heroin while writing Junkie . Burroughs also began a sexual relationship with a teenage boy named Kiki, which would last until Kiki's death in September 1957. In May 1954, Burroughs began work on what would become Naked Lunch . He mailed his early drafts to his friends Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac , who were the core members of

14700-499: The early 1930s, with early papers by Pavlov, Galant and Sluchevsky and Friken, and would remain a strain in the Soviet treatment of alcoholism well into the 1980s. In the US a particularly notable devotee was Dr Voegtlin, who attempted aversion therapy using apomorphine in the mid to late 1930s. However, he found apomorphine less able to induce negative feelings in his subjects than the stronger and more unpleasant emetic emetine . In

14850-560: The end of the war, in Cannes in 1922, followed by a preparatory conference in London in June 1923, and a follow-up conference in Paris that started in October and concluded with a convention signed by France , Spain and the UK on 18 December 1923, ignoring Italy 's stated wish to participate as well. Under that Paris Convention, Tangier was made a neutral zone under joint administration by

15000-507: The fact that as of his writing, little to no research has been done on apomorphine or variations of the drug to study its effects on curing addiction, and perhaps the possibility of retaining the positive effects while removing the side effect of vomiting. Despite his claims throughout his life, Burroughs never really cured his addiction and was back to using opiates within years of his apomorphine "cure". However, he insisted on apomorphine's effectiveness in several works and interviews. There

15150-472: The first medical reports of its use for more than pure emesis come from James Tompkins and Charles Douglas. Tompkins reported, after injection of 6.5 mg ("one tenth of a grain"): In four minutes free emesis followed, rigidity gave way to relaxation, excitement to somnolence, and without further medication the patient, who before had been wild and delirious, went off into a quiet sleep. Douglas saw two purposes for apomorphine: [it can be used to treat]

15300-484: The first opportunity to relapse. I can say that I was never metabolically cured until I took the apomorphine cure... The doctor, John Yerbury Dent, explained to me that apomorphine acts on the back brain to regulate the metabolism and normalize the blood stream in such a way that the enzyme stream of addiction is destroyed over a period of four to five days. Once the back brain is regulated apomorphine can be discontinued and only used in case of relapse. He goes on to lament

15450-656: The hearing examiner, admitted that Burroughs' work had some "intelligible satire", but felt its vulgarity outweighed any literary merit. He ruled that the magazine was in fact obscene and could not be mailed. In February 1960, Big Table filed a federal complaint, arguing that the Post Office's decision violated the First Amendment . On June 30, 1960, the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois overturned

15600-498: The idea of the "conditioned reflex" in 1903. This method was not limited to Douglas; the Irish doctor Francis Hare, who worked in a sanatorium outside London from 1905 onward, also used low-dose apomorphine as a treatment, describing it as "the most useful single drug in the therapeutics of inebriety". He wrote: In (the) sanatorium it is used in three different sets of circumstances: (1) in maniacal or hysterical drunkenness: (2) during

15750-437: The intention is usually to reduce the L -DOPA dosing, as by this stage the patient often has many of dyskinesias caused by L -DOPA and hypermobility periods. When an episode sets in, the apomorphine is injected subcutaneously or applied sublingually, and signs subside. It is used an average of three times a day. Some people use portable mini-pumps that continuously infuse them with apomorphine, allowing them to stay in

15900-457: The international framework on a par with the signatories of the Paris Convention was supported by Spain from 1926, then by the UK, and a new conference eventually started in Paris in March 1928. The new protocol, amending the previous Paris Convention of 1923, was signed there on 25 July 1928. It was then ratified by Belgium (25 July 1928), Sweden (19 October 1928), Portugal (15 January 1929), and

16050-418: The international zone's institutions were repurposed for new uses. The Administration building became the seat of the local Prefecture ( Amalat , then Wilaya ), now of the region of Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima . The nearby International Jurisdiction's building became the seat of Tangier's Court of First Instance, which in turn moved in 2021 to a new building in the outskirts of Tangier; the former building of

16200-456: The little toe amputates in a West African disease confined to the Negro race and the passing blonde shows her brass ankle as a manicured toe bounces across the club terrace, retrieved and laid at her feet by her Afghan hound... Naked Lunch is a blueprint, a How-To Book... Black insect lusts open into vast other-planet landscapes... Abstract concepts, bare as algebra, narrow down to a black turd or

16350-501: The nearby vomiting center . While apomorphine has lower bioavailability when taken orally, due to not being absorbed well in the GI tract and undergoing heavy first-pass metabolism , it has a bioavailability of 100% when given subcutaneously. It reaches peak plasma concentration in 10–60 minutes. Ten to twenty minutes after that, it reaches its peak concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid . Its lipophilic structure allows it to cross

16500-552: The novel advocates "a violent rejection and undermining of the entire dual system of morality." Barry Miles interprets the recurring hanging scenes as critiquing sexual exploitation, racist lynchings, and capital punishment in general. Burroughs himself considered his novel a Swiftian argument against the death penalty. Tangier International Zone The Tangier International Zone ( Arabic : منطقة طنجة الدولية Minṭaqat Ṭanja ad-Dawliyya ; French : Zone internationale de Tanger ; Spanish : Zona Internacional de Tánger )

16650-573: The novel and mailing them to Ginsberg. Burroughs later stated he "wrote nearly the whole of Naked Lunch on cannabis". In early 1957, Kerouac and Ginsberg visited Burroughs in Tangier, where they helped Burroughs type his manuscript and assemble the fragments he had mailed them over the years. However, Ginsberg worried the lack of character development or a clear narrative would make the book impossible to publish. That summer, Burroughs spent three weeks in Copenhagen, which inspired additional sections of

16800-523: The novel as "repugnant" and argued that the chapter describing A.J's Party may have qualified as obscene, but found that the book as a whole did not appeal to a "prurient interest" and therefore did not violate the statute. Instead, the judge wrote that "its predominant interest is to complete boredom". In New York City, William Lee hides from a narcotics agent. He and fellow heroin user Bill Gains agree that law enforcement has become too aggressive and decide to leave New York. Lee travels to Mexico City, then to

16950-448: The novel features recurring imagery connecting hanging with orgasm . In most cases, the novel portrays sex as exploitative rather than consensual. Many "routines" involve body horror , especially grotesque transformations of humans into insects or amorphous blobs. Many of the novel's grotesque images revolve around consumption: people are described as animals like vampire bats and boa constrictors, trade giant centipede meat, and depend on

17100-709: The novel in the Review' s Spring 1958 and Autumn 1958 issues. Jack Mabley , a columnist for the Chicago Daily News , publicly criticized the Chicago Review for publishing "obscenity". In response, the University of Chicago insisted that material from Burroughs and Jack Kerouac could not appear in the upcoming Winter issue. Irving Rosenthal resigned from the Review and founded a new literary magazine with Pete Carroll called Big Table , which published

17250-492: The novel set in "Freeland". In 1957, Allen Ginsberg submitted the Naked Lunch manuscript to Olympia Press , which had a reputation for publishing controversial novels such as Tropic of Cancer and Lolita . Olympia rejected the manuscript, arguing that it was inaccessible and lacked structure. Ginsberg then sent the manuscript to Irving Rosenthal , editor of the Chicago Review . Rosenthal published excerpts from

17400-506: The novel uses opioids as a metaphor for broader forms of control. The novel was highly controversial for its depictions of drug use, sadomasochism, and body horror , including a famous description of a man's talking anus taking over his body. The book was considered obscene by the United States Postal Service , the state of Massachusetts , and the city of Los Angeles , each leading to separate legal challenges. In

17550-437: The novel's structure by comparing it to Finnegans Wake . John Ciardi compared the book to a hellfire sermon akin to the works of Dante Alighieri and Hieronymous Bosch and argued its vulgarity was a key part of its effect. He also argued that Burroughs' uncontrolled writing process did not undermine the novel's artistry. Professor Norman Holland agreed with Ciardi's interpretation and suggested Augustine might have written

17700-524: The oldest of which appears to have been concluded with the Republic of Pisa in 1358. Such bilateral arrangements, known as capitulations , were signed with France in 1767, the United Kingdom in 1856 , and Spain in 1861 in the wake of the Treaty of Wad Ras . In 1863, France and Morocco signed the so-called Béclard Convention which expanded the protégé system to France's benefit, which in 1880

17850-951: The other three. A.J., a Factualist, and Hassan, a Liquefactionist, both support a mysterious organization called Islam Inc. This organization hires Lee to find and recruit the sociopathic Doctor Benway, who previously established a dystopian police state in Annexia. Lee meets Benway in Freeland, where he performs psychological experiments at a "Reconditioning Center". He agrees to work for Islam Inc. These events are interspersed with non-chronological vignettes about Lee's criminal history and drug use, A.J.'s and Hassan's sadomasochistic parties, Benway's unethical experiments, other characters' grotesque transformations, and abstract cut-up sequences with no clear narrative arc. Back in New York, Lee shoots two police officers who try to arrest him, then calls

18000-407: The paroxysm of dipsomania, in order to still the craving for alcohol; and (3) in essential insomnia of a special variety... [after giving apomorphine] the patient's mental condition is entirely altered. He may be sober: he is free from the time being from any craving from alcohol. The craving may return, however, and then it is necessary to repeat the injection, it may be several times at intervals of

18150-406: The participating countries. In line with UK wishes, it was entirely free from any military presence. It was also made into a tax haven , with no tariffs on imported or exported goods or gold, no exchange controls, no income or revenue taxes, and unlimited freedom of establishment. Ratifications of the signatories were exchanged in Paris on 14 May 1924. The entry into force of the Paris Convention

18300-448: The police department, which tells him those officers didn't exist. Lee considers himself "occluded from space-time" and believes he will no longer interact with the surreal world of Interzone. The novel ends with an "Atrophied Preface" about the book itself, followed by a sequence of disjointed and impressionistic closing lines. Burroughs originally used the title Interzone for his manuscript. He also considered several titles involving

18450-655: The prior French and Spanish Tabors that had been established under the Act of Algeciras. The zone's legislature was the International Legislative Assembly, which retained some features of the prior Hygiene Commission. It was chaired by the Mendoub and supervised by the Committee of Control. The assembly's membership was set as follows: 4 French, 4 Spanish, 3 British, 2 Italians (3 after 1928, 1 after 1945), 1 American (seat unoccupied until 1940, 3 after 1945), 1 Belgian, 1 Dutch, 1 Portuguese, 6 Muslims, and 3 Jews. The latter 9 were designated by

18600-602: The production of a vomit. This led to his development of lower-dose and non-aversive methods, which would inspire a positive trial of his method in Switzerland by Dr Harry Feldmann and later scientific testing in the 1970s, some time after his death. However, the use of apomorphine in aversion therapy had escaped alcoholism, with its use to treat homosexuality leading to the death of a British Army Captain Billy Clegg Hill in 1962, helping to cement its reputation as

18750-575: The re-establishment of the international regime in 1945, the new arrangements were more favorable to smaller nations, resulting in successive Portuguese (1945–1948 and 1951–1954), Dutch (1948–1951), and Belgian (1954–1956) nationals holding the position. In the zone's early years and until 1937, the Administrator and his staff worked in the building of the Moroccan Debt Administration , on Boulevard Pasteur. From 1937 to

18900-677: The reaction varies based upon choice of acid and water scavenger. The yield of this reaction is much higher: at least 55%. The pharmacological effects of the naturally-occurring analog aporphine in the blue lotus ( Nymphaea caerulea ) were known to the ancient Egyptians and Mayans, with the plant featuring in tomb frescoes and associated with entheogenic rites. It is also observed in Egyptian erotic cartoons, suggesting that they were aware of its erectogenic properties. The modern medical history of apomorphine begins with its synthesis by Arppe in 1845 from morphine and sulfuric acid , although it

19050-463: The rigorous application of an almost total non-taxation". In the years leading up to the First World War , Tangier had a population of about 40,000, about half Muslim, a quarter Jewish , and a quarter European Christians . By 1956, Tangier had a population of around 40,000 Muslims, 31,000 Christians , and 15,000 Jews. Following Moroccan independence , the buildings that had hosted

19200-465: The riots as just and denounced the brutality of European imperialism , but worried about the impact of Islamic rule on individual freedom. In 1955, Burroughs attempted to quit Eukodol by checking himself into Benchimol Hospital, where his experiences helped inspire the character of Dr Benway. In 1956, Burroughs successfully mitigated his drug dependency using apomorphine . Burroughs replaced his opioid use with cannabis , and continued writing sections of

19350-561: The root cause of "poverty, hatred, war, police-criminals, bureaucracy, [and] insanity". The novel showcases the struggle between authoritarian, bureaucratic control, epitomized by Dr. Benway, and individual freedom, represented by the Factualist Party. AJ and Lee, both Factualists, fight back against these systems of control with violence and absurd humor. However, Burroughs undermines these characters' heroism: AJ and Lee work for Islam Inc., which has unclear goals of its own, AJ may be

19500-410: The secretions of monsters called Mugwumps. The novel describes its characters in behaviorist terms, emphasizing stimuli and responses rather than emotions and internal states. The novel depicts humans as mechanical beings, creating what Edward Foster describes as a "Pavlovian nightmare". Biographer Barry Miles and Burroughs himself have called Naked Lunch a Picaresque novel . Other critics consider

19650-452: The sultan appointed a permanent representative to the foreign powers in Tangier, the Naib , and in 1856, all remaining consulates were elevated to legations . Since the Moroccan legal regime applied Islamic law only to Muslims and Judaic law only to Jews , foreign representatives were kept under a derogatory legal status defined by successive bilateral agreements with the Makhzen ,

19800-527: The suppressed material in its first issue. Rosenthal and Carroll planned to mail the first issue of Big Table in March 1959. However, the US Post Office considered the magazine obscene, which made it un-mailable under the Comstock laws . On June 4th, 1959, the Post Office launched a formal hearing over Big Table' s obscenity, with a particular focus on Burroughs' Ten Episodes from Naked Lunch and

19950-467: The surreal city of Interzone. Lee finds that Interzone is centered around a black market of drugs and giant centipede meat, and its residents include monstrous creatures called Mugwumps. The city is contested by four rival political parties: Liquefactionists, who want to merge everyone into one protoplasmic entity; Senders, who want to control everyone else through telepathy; Divisionists, who subdivide into replicas of themselves; and Factualists, who oppose

20100-474: The text. For example, when describing a scene as taking place "...under silent wings of the Anopheles mosquito," Burroughs adds the parenthetical "(Note: This is not a figure. Anopheles mosquitoes are silent.)" Many scenes are described as though on film, using the language of stage directions and editing techniques. This structure builds on that of Burroughs' incomplete previous novel Queer , which began as

20250-481: The words say: naked lunch, a frozen moment when everyone sees what is on the end of every fork." The book was originally published with the title The Naked Lunch in Paris in July 1959 by Olympia Press . Because of US obscenity laws , a complete American edition (by Grove Press ) did not follow until 1962. It was titled Naked Lunch and was substantially different from the Olympia Press edition because it

20400-521: The zone's special status enabled a gradual recovery. The Zone had a reputation for tolerance, diversity of culture, religion, and bohemianism . It became a tourist hotspot for literary giants and gay men from Western countries. Many of the latter were able to live an openly "out" life in the Zone. The activity of Tangier as an offshore financial centre and tax haven took off in the postwar period. In 1950, there were 85 banks in Tangier, up from 4 in 1900 and 15 in 1939. Its practice of banking secrecy

20550-460: Was a 382 km (147 sq mi) international zone centered on the city of Tangier , Morocco, which existed from 1925 until its reintegration into independent Morocco in 1956, with interruption during the Spanish occupation of Tangier (1940–1945) , and special economic status extended until early 1960. Surrounded on the land side by the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , it was governed under

20700-506: Was a blend of French and Spanish codes, depending on the specific matter, and the Courts' official languages were French and Spanish. Unlike other institutions of the zone, the Mixed Courts continued to function under the Spanish occupation of Tangier during World War II. Following the convention of November 1952, the renamed International Jurisdiction included 2 judges from France, 2 from Spain, and 1 from each of Belgium, Italy, Morocco,

20850-611: Was based on an earlier 1958 manuscript in Allen Ginsberg 's possession. The definite article "the" in the title was never intended by the author, but added by the editors of the Olympia Press 1959 edition. Nonetheless The Naked Lunch remained the title used for the 1968 and 1974 Corgi Books editions, and the novel is often known by the alternative name, especially in the UK where these editions circulated. You can cut into Naked Lunch at any intersection point... I have written many prefaces. They atrophy and amputate spontaneous like

21000-459: Was extended to other nations by the Treaty of Madrid . Under the capitulations' legal protection the United Kingdom established a postal service in Tangier in 1857, followed by France in 1860, Spain in 1861, and Germany in 1899; the Moroccan Sultanate followed suit with its own service in 1902. The foreign powers in Tangier soon started developing joint projects, starting with matters of quarantine and public health as early as 1792. In 1840,

21150-475: Was extreme, with effectively no bank licensing, no prudential supervision, no accounting obligations, and no transparency whatsoever about a bank's ownership. In some cases, the senior management of a Tangier bank would not even know who the bank's owners were. One author wrote that "the authorities of Tangier had pushed to an unequaled degree of perfection the art of non-governing by reciprocal annulment of rival sovereignties. They took care, better than elsewhere, of

21300-410: Was further delayed by translation challenges, so that the Tangier International Zone eventually started in 1 June 1925 under a Dahir of 15 May 1925. Simultaneously, the tasks of prior institutions including the Sanitary Council and Hygiene Commission were taken over by the new International Administration, even though the bodies themselves continued to exist for a few more years. The Paris Convention

21450-613: Was given legal form on 23 December 1893, with its role broadened and its name extended to road works ( French : commission d'hygiène et de voirie ) with authority to raise levies. In 1904, Tangier was chosen as location of the French-led Moroccan Debt Administration . That same year, a secret treaty between France and Spain acknowledged Tangier's special status and thus marked the first official prefiguration of later formal international arrangements. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 established

21600-399: Was in many ways unique, and ridden with ambiguities. . It was frequently renegotiated and perceived as temporary, with different participating countries constantly jockeying for influence, resulting in administrative overlap and inefficiency. It rested on five main institutions: the Committee of Control, an oversight body; the Administrator (executive); the Legislative Assembly (legislature);

21750-531: Was in the Mendoubia . The initial economic effect of the creation of the International Zone was sharply negative, because the Spanish protectorate authorities discouraged commerce with it and thus Tangier lost most of its traditional hinterland. Tangier had handled nineteen percent of Morocco's imports in 1906, but only four percent in 1929. With time, however, the service activities favoured by

21900-743: Was little clinical consequence. The use of apomorphine to treat "the shakes" was first suggested by Weil in France in 1884, although seemingly not pursued until 1951. Its clinical use was first reported in 1970 by Cotzias et al., although its emetic properties and short half-life made oral use impractical. A later study found that combining the drug with the antiemetic domperidone improved results significantly. The commercialization of apomorphine for Parkinson's disease followed its successful use in patients with refractory motor fluctuations using intermittent rescue injections and continuous infusions. Aversion therapy in alcoholism had its roots in Russia in

22050-399: Was named sulphomorphide at first. Matthiesen and Wright (1869) used hydrochloric acid instead of sulfuric acid in the process, naming the resulting compound apomorphine . Initial interest in the compound was as an emetic, tested and confirmed safe by London doctor Samuel Gee , and for the treatment of stereotypies in farmyard animals. Key to the use of apomorphine as a behavioural modifier

22200-641: Was proposed for ratification to the other powers that were party to the Algeciras Conference , except Germany , Austria and Hungary , disempowered by the peace treaties (respectively of Versailles , Saint-Germain and Trianon ), and the Soviet Union , then estranged from the international system. It was ratified by Belgium (on 6 December 1924), Sweden, the Netherlands (on 5 October 1925), and eventually by Portugal (on 28 January 1926), putting an end to an awkward early period during which

22350-535: Was published in the United Kingdom by John Calder . Calder avoided selling the book to wholesalers and only distributed small print runs at a high price to avoid legal attention, and successfully avoided prosecution. Naked Lunch was banned in Boston , and in January 1965 the novel was tried in rem . William Cowin represented the state of Massachusetts, while Edward de Grazia represented Grove Press. Cowin argued

22500-401: Was the research of Erich Harnack, whose experiments in rabbits (which do not vomit) demonstrated that apomorphine had powerful effects on the activity of rabbits, inducing licking, gnawing and in very high doses convulsions and death. Apomorphine was one of the earliest used pharmacotherapies for alcoholism . The Keeley Cure (1870s to 1900) contained apomorphine, among other ingredients, but

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