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71-762: Richardson's killing sparked outrage among Europeans for violating their extraterritoriality in Japan, while the Japanese argued Richardson had disrespected Shimazu and was justifiably killed under the Kiri-sute gomen rule. British demands for compensation and failure by the Satsuma to respond resulted in the Bombardment of Kagoshima (or Anglo-Satsuma War) in August 1863. On 14 September 1862, four British subjects –

142-564: A daimyō ' s train, as evidence that the insolent attitude of Lennox and his party had caused the incident. Van Reed's conduct had appalled the Western community, who believed that Westerners should hold themselves with dignity before the Japanese, being at least the equal of any Japanese person. There were also later suggestions that Richardson had acted in a similar manner towards Chinese people while horseback riding in China, and according to

213-606: A Canadian engaging in sexual activity with a person above age of consent in a jurisdiction which is lower than Canada's, they will be prosecuted according to Canadian law. For example, in Poland where the age of consent is 15, were a Canadian adult to participate in such an activity, they would be prosecuted in Canadian law regardless of what local law says, for a crime committed outside Canadian jurisdiction. The same applies to China: restrictions on freedom of speech, such as criticism of

284-549: A bilateral status of forces agreement. In maritime law , a ship in international waters is governed by the laws of the jurisdiction in which that ship is registered. This can be conceived of as a form of extraterritoriality, where a nation's jurisdiction extends beyond its border. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Italian sea republics of Genoa , Venice and Pisa obtained extraterritoriality for their merchants who operated in designated quarters ( Pera and Galata ) in

355-601: A formal distinction between criminal and civil law. While efforts at legal reform were pursued in earnest in the last decade of the Qing dynasty, what was actually achieved failed to meaningfully address this lack of law in the areas of contracts, trade, or commerce. After the collapse of the Chinese government in 1911 and the ensuing administrative vacuum, the Chinese members of the Mixed Court were subsequently appointed by

426-489: A letter to his cousin dated 6 September 1860. Unequal treaties were later signed with 12 other European powers and with Japan. Extraterritoriality came to end in 1917 with respect to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary . In 1925–1926, the treaties were revised to provide for consular jurisdiction to be terminated, and nationals of the parties to the treaty were to come under the jurisdiction of Thai courts after

497-463: A long-standing legal edifice". Jurisdiction in Qing China , with differential treatment for Han and Manchu subjects, was not determined by geography, but rather, by the identity of the subjects. For example, the ruling Manchu elite possessed legal privileges which placed them outside the jurisdiction of local ethnically Chinese administrators. Before the 1842 Treaty of Nanking , which ended

568-610: A scare in Japan's foreign community, which was based in the Kannai district of Yokohama. Westerners argued that Lennox was protected in Japan by extraterritoriality under the Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty and were exempt from Japanese cultural requirements, meaning Richardson's death under kiri-sute gomen was illegal. Many Western traders appealed to their governments to take punitive action against Japan. The British government demanded reparations from

639-545: A tendency in the Qing legal order to impose collective responsibility; they were also resentful of the Qing practice of meting out capital punishment in cases of accidental manslaughter". After the Lady Hughes Affair – a controversial 1784 case where a British gunner was executed for killing two Chinese subjects – East India Company officials generally spirited away Britons before Qing officials could react. Grants of extraterritoriality were regular in China. In

710-432: Is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. Historically, this primarily applied to individuals, as jurisdiction was usually claimed on peoples rather than on lands. Extraterritoriality can also be partly applied to physical places. For example, such is the immunity granted to diplomatic missions , military bases of foreign countries, or offices of

781-654: The Bakufu and from the daimyō of Satsuma, together with the arrest, trial and execution of the perpetrators. By mid-1863, the British had become impatient that the reparations demands for the Namamugi Incident were still unmet. In July, the Bakufu reluctantly paid the British the sum of £100,000 (one-third of their annual revenue) in compensation, though this was mainly due to fear of naval bombardment against

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852-634: The Allied Forces Ordinance, 1942 and the members of the United States Armed Forces were entirely governed by their own laws, even in criminal cases. Historically, the United States has had extraterritoriality agreements with 15 nations with non-Western legal systems: Algeria , Borneo , China, Egypt, Iran, Japan, South Korea, Libya , Madagascar , Morocco, Samoa , Tanzania , Thailand , Tunisia , and

923-1060: The American Battle Monuments Commission . These are located in Belgium , Cuba , France , Gibraltar , Italy , Luxembourg , Mexico , Morocco , the Netherlands , Panama , Papua New Guinea , the Philippines , the Solomon Islands , Tunisia , and the United Kingdom . The most popular site among these is the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in France. Land under the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and surrounding 100 hectares

994-557: The British Court for Japan in 1879. In 1887, only 2,389 non-Chinese foreigners lived in Japan, with strict limitations on freedom of movement . These limitations meant that foreigners in Japan were not able to commit crime with impunity, in contrast with China, where foreigners were granted the ability to travel to the interior after passporting. Rather, it was in the context of the Japanese state's desire to eliminate all competing jurisdictions and calls for legal reform based on

1065-638: The British House of Commons , but Acting Vice Admiral Augustus Leopold Kuper 's conduct was eventually commended by the House. Kuper was advanced to Knight Commander of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath in 1864 "for his services at Kagoshima". Shimazu Hisamitsu was subsequently given the court title of Ōsumi no Kami (大隅守). The military stalemate resulted in a renegotiation between

1136-596: The British Supreme Court for China . Similar courts were established for treaty countries, e.g. the United States Court for China . These had jurisdiction over the concession areas, which formally remained under Qing sovereignty. Initially, Chinese people who committed crimes in, say, the British zone, were remanded to Chinese authorities. By the early 20th century, some Western powers were willing to relinquish extraterritorial rights given

1207-632: The Chinese Communist Party , will be prosecuted according to Chinese law when that person steps foot on Chinese soil, regardless if said comments were made by a student in London or Vancouver. In some military and commercial agreements, nations cede legal jurisdiction for foreign bases or ports to other countries. For example, Japan cedes jurisdiction over American military bases on its soil in Okinawa to US military tribunals pursuant to

1278-544: The First Opium War , foreign merchants were not satisfied with the state of the Qing legal system. Prior to the Treaty, British Merchants were only able to trade in the region of Canton, exclusively with Chinese Merchants called Cohongs. The Chinese Merchants benefitted significantly out of the deal, contributing to the British dissatisfaction with the Chinese. British merchants were "suspicious of what they regarded as

1349-460: The Japan Herald "Extra" of Tuesday 16 September 1862, he had been heard to say just before the incident, "I know how to deal with these people". Richardson's uncle was reportedly not surprised about his nephew's demise, but blamed him for being reckless and stubborn. Frederick Wright-Bruce , the British envoy to China , remembered Richardson as an "arrogant adventurer". The incident sparked

1420-580: The John F. Kennedy Memorial at Runnymede , England, was given to the United States by the United Kingdom, but required an Act of Parliament (the John F. Kennedy Memorial Act 1964 ) to do so, because the land was part of the Crown Estate , which cannot otherwise be given away for free. Another example of these types of special concessions are the numerous cemeteries and monuments administered by

1491-491: The Nine-Power Treaty was signed which expressed the willingness of the parties to end extraterritoriality in China once a competent legal system was established by China. As a result, a commission was established in 1926 that published a detailed report which contained its findings and recommendations for the Chinese legal system. Extraterritoriality in China for non-diplomatic personnel ended at various times in

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1562-724: The Ottoman Empire . Americans in the military or civilians working on American military bases overseas generally have extraterritoriality, so they can only be tried by the U.S. military. This is regulated by a status of forces agreement . Princess Margriet of the Netherlands was born on 19 January 1943 in Ottawa Civic Hospital in Ottawa, Ontario, as the family had been living in Canada since June 1940 after

1633-527: The PRC government claims the right, under article 10 of its criminal code, to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes against the criminal code which are committed abroad, even if already punished for the crime. These emerge from significant claims of the importance of national sovereignty, a reaction to its abridgement in the past, where almost no nations emphasise the importance of their sovereignty more than China does today. Japan recognized extraterritoriality in

1704-672: The Shanghai -based merchant Charles Lennox Richardson , two Yokohama -based merchants, Woodthorpe Charles Clark and William Marshall, and Marshall's sister-in-law Margaret Watson Borradaile – were travelling on the Tōkaidō road in Japan en route to visit the Kawasaki Daishi temple near Kawasaki . Richardson had recently announced his retirement, and was visiting the temple with his friends en route back to England . The party had departed

1775-618: The Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War , China gave up its extraterritorial rights in Japan, without reciprocity. By far the most important of the treaty ports established after 1842 was Shanghai, where the vague extraterritoriality provisions of the various treaties were most sophisticatedly implemented. The two main courts judging extraterritorial cases were the Shanghai Mixed Court and

1846-507: The United Nations . The three most common cases recognized today internationally relate to the persons and belongings of foreign heads of state and government , the persons and belongings of ambassadors and other diplomats , and ships in international waters . In the past, pre-modern states generally claimed sovereignty over persons, creating something known as personal jurisdiction . As people move between borders, this led, in

1917-490: The Xianfeng Emperor of China, and on 1 March following chief superintendent of British trade in that country. His mission was prevented from proceeding to Peking by the opposition made by the Chinese. The mission therefore returned to Shanghai, where it remained until the ratification of the treaty of 26 June 1858 at Peking on 24 October 1860. He proceeded to Peking on 7 November 1860 but withdrew to Tientsin for

1988-518: The occupation of the Netherlands by Nazi Germany . The maternity ward of Ottawa Civic Hospital in which Princess Margriet was born was temporarily declared to be extraterritorial by the Canadian government. Making the maternity ward outside of the Canadian domain caused it to be unaffiliated with any jurisdiction and technically international territory . This was done to ensure that the newborn would derive her citizenship from her mother only, thus making her solely Dutch, which could be very important had

2059-483: The treaty port of Yokohama at 2:30 pm by boat, crossing Yokohama harbour to Kanagawa village, to join their horses which had been sent ahead. They were travelling north through the nearby village of Namamugi (now part of Tsurumi Ward , Yokohama) when they encountered the large, armed retinue of Shimazu Hisamitsu , the regent and father of Shimazu Tadayoshi , the daimyō of the Satsuma Domain . Shimazu

2130-475: The 1830s, when the Qing government concluded a treaty with the Uzbek khanate of Khoqand, it granted extraterritorial privileges to its traders. And in dealing with foreign merchants through the centuries, the Qing government rarely attempted to impose jurisdiction based on territorial sovereignty, instead entrusting the punishment of foreigners to the respective authority in practically all cases except homicide. At

2201-506: The 20th century. Germany and Austria-Hungary lost their rights in China in 1917 after China declared war on them. The Soviet Union made secret agreements that kept its rights until 1960, although it publicly falsely stated that it gave them up in 1924. In 1937, the status of the various foreign powers was thus: In 1929 the Nationalist government announced its goal of ending extraterritoriality completely. Negotiations with Britain,

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2272-465: The British and Satsuma regarding the Namamugi Incident. The Satsuma admired the superiority of the Royal Navy and sought a trading relationship with Britain as a result. Later that year, the Satsuma paid the £25,000 (equivalent to £3,000,000 in 2023) in compensation demanded by the British government with money borrowed from the Bakufu . The Satsuma never repaid the £25,000 to the Bakufu because

2343-752: The Byzantine capital, Constantinople , as well as in Egypt and the Barbary states. A series of capitulations were made in the form of treaties between the Sublime Porte and Western nations, from the sixteenth through the early nineteenth centuries. The legal impenetrability of the Ottoman legal code created during the Tanzimat era began to weaken continuously through the spread of European empires and

2414-557: The Chinese authorities according to the laws of China, and citizens of the United states who may commit any crime in China shall be subject to be tried and punished only by the Consul or other public functionary of the United States thereto authorised according to the laws of the United States. The Wanghia treaty included an exception for American trading in opium and also subjected American ships trading outside treaty ports to confiscation by

2485-529: The Chinese government in articles 33 and 3. Similarly, the French also pursued protections in the Treaty of Huangpu , which further introduced a distinction between criminal and civil jurisdiction (non-existent in Qing dynasty law) and gave Frenchmen the full protections of Chinese law outside concessionary areas. The 1858 Sino-British Treaty of Tientsin , which ended the Second Opium War , expanded

2556-404: The Chinese interior. Under imperial edict earlier in the year, these privileges were extended to most western countries. Other nations wanted reassurances and guarantees. For example, the United States negotiated the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia , which stated in article 21: Subjects of China who may be guilty of any criminal act towards citizens of the United States shall be arrested and punished by

2627-560: The Hon. C. A. Murray. On his brother, Lord Elgin , being appointed ambassador extraordinary to China, he accompanied him as principal secretary in April 1857. He brought home (18 September 1857) the treaty with China signed at Tientsin on 26 June 1858 and was made a C.B. on 28 September. His diplomatic tact was thoroughly appreciated by the home government, for he was appointed on 2 December 1858 envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to

2698-443: The Satsuma bodyguards. Clark and Marshall were also severely wounded by the Satsuma but Borrodaile was not harmed, and the three rode away as fast as they could. Richardson fell from his horse and Shimazu gave the order for todome — the coup de grâce — to be given, with several samurai proceeding to hack and stab at Richardson with swords and lances . A post-mortem examination of Richardson's body showed ten mortal wounds, and he

2769-661: The Satsuma vessels and bombarding Kagoshima, which had been evacuated. The Satsuma batteries were gradually silenced, but the British ships were unable to sustain the bombardment and retreated two days later. Ultimately, the battle resulted in five killed on the Satsuma side, and eleven lives among the British (including, with a single cannon shot, both the captain and commander of the British flagship HMS Euryalus ). Satsuma's material losses were substantial, with around 500 houses destroyed in Kagoshima, and three Satsuma steamships were sunk. The engagement caused much controversy in

2840-680: The Tokugawa Shogunate would be overthrown in the Meiji Restoration five years later, and British demands for the Shimazu's bodyguards that had killed Richardson to be brought to trial were unfulfilled. The Bombardment of Kagoshima became known in Japan as the Anglo-Satsuma War (薩英戦争, Satsu-Ei Sensō ). The Namamugi Incident was the basis of James Clavell 's novel Gai-Jin . It is also partially referenced in

2911-663: The Tokugawa capital city of Edo . The Satsuma Domain continued to ignore the British demands and refused to apologize for Richardson's death. On 15 August, a Royal Navy squadron entered the waters of Kagoshima , the capital city of the Satsuma Domain, to extract the demanded reparations for the Namamugi Incident by force. Meeting further prevarication, they seized several Satsuma ships as bargaining chips for future negotiations, but were unexpectedly fired upon by Satsuma coastal batteries . The squadron retaliated by destroying

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2982-488: The Western powers, placing all inhabitants of the international settlement under de facto foreign jurisdiction. The success of the Northern Expedition in strengthening the authority of the Chinese republic in the mid-1920s led many governments to give up their more minor treaty ports without a fight. However, the treaty powers were unwilling to give up Shanghai, or their privileges within it, which remained

3053-633: The child been male, and as such, the heir of Princess Juliana. The most famous cases of extraterritoriality in East Asia are those of 19th century China, Japan, and Siam, emerging from what is termed the " unequal treaties ". The practice of extraterritoriality, however, was not confined to the 19th century or these nations, as the monarchs and governments of pre-modern East Asia primarily claimed sovereignty over people rather than tracts of land. The creation of extraterritoriality for treaty nations "was not introduced into East Asia ex novo , but built atop

3124-509: The framework of a territorial jurisdiction, to certain persons being under the laws of countries in which they did not reside. Extraterritoriality, in this sense, emerges from the interaction of these two conceptions of jurisdiction, personal and territorial, when laws are applied based on who a person is rather than where they are. Extraterritoriality can now take various forms. Most famous are examples of diplomatic extraterritoriality, where diplomats and their belongings do not operate under

3195-780: The great powers to institute and organize their own legal structures to represent their citizens abroad. The capitulations ceased to have effect in Turkey in 1923, by virtue of the Treaty of Lausanne , and in Egypt they were abolished by the Montreux Convention in 1949. During the Second World War , the military personnel of the Allied forces within the British Raj were governed by their own military codes by

3266-520: The improved state of Chinese legal reform. For example, the 1902 Sino-British " Mackay treaty " 's article 12 read: China having expressed a strong desire to reform her judicial system ... [the United Kingdom] will ... be pretreated to relinquish her extra-territorial rights when she is satisfied that the state of the Chinese laws, the arrangement for her administration, and other considerations warrant her in so doing. Qing law did not make

3337-566: The introduction of all Thai legal codes and a period of 5 years thereafter. By 1930, extraterritoriality was in effect no longer in force. After absolute monarchy was replaced by constitutional monarchy in the bloodless Siamese revolution of 1932 , the constitutional government promulgated a set of legal codes, setting the stage for new treaties signed in 1937–1938 which canceled extraterritorial rights completely. Contrary to popular belief, diplomatic missions do not generally enjoy full extraterritorial status and are not sovereign territory of

3408-482: The killing, respectively. Japanese reports accused Richardson of continuing to ride in the middle of the road, and trying to get between Shimazu's litter and his bodyguards. In Japan, the samurai had a legal right known as kiri-sute gomen which allowed them to strike anyone of a lower class for perceived disrespect, which could have justified the killing by Shimazu's retinue. The Japanese instanced Eugene Van Reed , an American who had dismounted and bowed before

3479-488: The laws of their host nations, but rather, under the laws of the diplomat's nation. Similarly, many nations claim the right to prosecute foreign combatants and violators of human rights under doctrines of universal jurisdiction , irrespective of the nationality of those persons or the place in which the alleged crimes occurred. This extends to domestic criminal codes as well: for example, the People's Republic of China claims

3550-489: The main holder of such rights, went slowly. They ended with the Japanese invasion of 1937 when Japan seized Shanghai and the main treaty ports where extraterritoriality was in operation. When both countries declared war on Japan in late 1941, they became formal allies of China and made ending extraterritoriality an urgent goal which both the U.S. and Britain fulfilled with the treaties they signed with China in 1943. The legacy of this for jurisdictional control continues to

3621-472: The models of those jurisdictions that Japan's government desired to abolish foreign courts. Having convinced the Western powers that its legal system was "sufficiently modern", Japan succeeded in reforming its unequal status with Britain through the 1894 Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation , in which London would relinquish its Japanese extraterritorial rights within five years. Similar treaties were signed with other extraterritorial powers around

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3692-455: The modern day. Cassel writes, "extraterritoriality has left many policy-makers in mainland China with a legacy of deeply felt suspicions toward international law, international organisations, and more recently, human rights". With part of its legitimacy resting on claims to strengthening national sovereignty and territorial integrity, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China explicitly states that foreigners must abide by PRC law . And

3763-421: The most prominent economic centre and treaty port. It was only after a confrontation between Shanghai police and Nationalist demonstrators in 1925 that Chinese authorities refused to enforce the verdicts of the Mixed Court; this led to its disestablishment in 1927 and replacement with a Chinese-run local court. In 1921, at the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington , an international treaty called

3834-426: The negotiations of the Treaty of Nanjing , Qing negotiators readily extended a grant of extraterritoriality. Cassel writes "the imperial commissioner and Manchu nobleman Qiying readily conceded extraterritorial privileges to the British in an exchange of notes with Pottinger [the British plenipotentiary] at the time of the conclusion of the treaty". This was in line with Qing practices at the time, where sovereignty

3905-451: The opening cutscene for the video game Total War: Shogun 2: Fall of the Samurai , which depicts an unnamed Japanese port town being bombarded by a British warship in retaliation for two western merchants being murdered by samurai. 35°29′29″N 139°39′49″E  /  35.49139°N 139.66361°E  / 35.49139; 139.66361 Extraterritoriality In international law , extraterritoriality or exterritoriality

3976-410: The prevalence of legal positivism . The laws and regulations created for Ottoman subjects to abide by often did not apply to European nationals conducting business and trade in the provinces of the empire, and thus various capitulations were brought into effect with respect to many foreign powers. The various overlapping governmental laws led to legal pluralism in which jurisdiction often was left up to

4047-529: The represented state. Countries which have ceded some control over their territory (for example, the right to enter at will for law enforcement purposes) without ceding sovereignty include: Special concessions are sometimes made for cemeteries and memorials. National governments can also own property or special concessions in other host countries without gaining any sort of legal jurisdiction or sovereignty, in which case they are treated similarly to other private property owners. For example, ownership of land under

4118-401: The right to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes committed abroad and Canada will prosecute sexual abuse of minors by a Canadian anywhere in the world. In practice, it means Chinese national security laws and restrictions on freedom of speech apply to every Chinese citizen across the world, while in Canada's case, local ages of consent are ignored in favour of the Canadian law, meaning

4189-466: The rights of western visitors. They were permitted to enter the Chinese interior after passporting. However, extraterritorial rights were not extended outside the treaty ports. Similar rights were granted to the interested western powers due to the "most-favoured-nation" clause: all privileges the Qing empire granted to one power were automatically granted to the others. In 1868, when the Tientsin treaties were renegotiated, British merchants clamoured to lift

4260-591: The same time. These treaties all came into effect in 1899, ending extraterritoriality in Japan. After the Allied victory in 1945, the Mutual Security Assistance Pact, and its successor treaties, between the United States, to the modern day, grant US military personnel on American bases in Okinawa extraterritorial privileges. King Mongkut (Rama IV) of Siam signed the Bowring Treaty granting extraterritorial rights to Britain in 1855. Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk , British Consul-General from 1859 to 1864, gives an account of his judicial training and responsibilities in

4331-619: The travel restrictions on the Chinese interior. The Qing position was adamantly opposed, unless extraterritoriality was also abolished. No compromise was reached; and the Qing government was successful in preventing foreigners from visiting the Chinese interior with extraterritorial privileges. Extraterritorial rights were not limited to Western nations. Under the 1871 Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty , Japan and China granted each other reciprocal extraterritorial rights. China itself imposed reciprocal extraterritoriality rights for its own citizens in Joseon Korea . However, in 1895, under

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4402-406: The treaties concluded with the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands , and Russia in 1858, in connection with the concept of the " most favoured nation ". Various commercial treaties extended extraterritorial protections in Japan with various parties, including with Peru, in 1873. Most countries exercised extraterritorial jurisdiction through consular courts . Britain established

4473-428: The winter, while arrangements were made for putting a residence in order for his reception. The mission was established at Peking on 26 March 1861, but it was not until 2 April that Bruce paid a visit to Prince Gong . During his time in Shanghai, his support for the Qing contributed heavily to Britain's later intervention in the Taiping Rebellion . On the removal of Lord Lyons from Washington to Constantinople, Bruce

4544-417: Was a British diplomat. Frederick Bruce was the youngest of the three sons of Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin and his second wife Elizabeth, youngest daughter of James Townshend Oswald of Dunnikier, Fife . He was born at Broomhall , Fife, on 14 April 1814. It was during his brief practice as a barrister that he changed his surname after receiving a large inheritance from a client. On 9 February 1842 he

4615-406: Was appointed lieutenant-governor of Newfoundland . His next change was to Sucre , with the appointment of consul-general in the republic of Bolivia on 23 July 1847, and on 14 April 1848 he was accredited as chargé d'affaires . He was named chargé d'affaires to the Oriental republic of Uruguay on 29 August 1851, and on 3 August 1853 became agent and consul-general in Egypt in the place of

4686-411: Was attached to Lord Ashburton 's mission to Washington, returning to England with his lordship in September of that year. On 9 February 1844 he was appointed colonial secretary at Hong Kong , and accompanied its second governor John Francis Davis on HMS  Spiteful arriving there on 8 May of that year. He left Hong Kong to begin 16 months' leave, on the 23 June 1846, and just four days later

4757-470: Was buried in the Yokohama Foreign General Cemetery , between the later graves of Marshall and Clark. The Namamugi Incident caused a new political crisis in Japan during the Bakumatsu , the period after the ruling Tokugawa Shogunate had ended its historic isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku and allowed the entry of foreigners. Japanese and Westerners were outraged by the incident, with these groups almost unanimously supportive and opposed to

4828-469: Was gifted by France to Canada. A similar case is the French domains of St Helena : the Government of France bought land property on St. Helena island to commemorate the exile of Napoleon Bonaparte there. Internal cases (both parties are part of the same unitary sovereign state but have different border control and legal systems): Frederick Wright-Bruce Sir Frederick William Adolphus Wright-Bruce , GCB (14 April 1814 – 19 September 1867)

4899-429: Was heading in the opposite direction to Lennox and his party, who continued to ride along the side of the road without dismounting until they reached the main body of the procession, which occupied the entire width of the road. Richardson, leading his party, rode close to Shimazu's procession and did not dismount despite being gestured repeatedly to do so. Richardson was subsequently slashed and mortally wounded by one of

4970-402: Was held by peoples rather than imposed on lands. A more formal declaration of extraterritoriality was concluded in the 1843 Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue , which established that "Britons were to be punished according to English law and Chinese were to be 'tried and punished by their own laws'". These provisions only applied to the treaty ports, since foreigners were barred from entering

5041-444: Was selected to fill the important office of British representative at Washington on 1 March 1865. He was made a K.C.B. of the civil division on 12 December 1862 and received the grand cross of the order on 17 March 1865. He was appointed umpire by the commission named under the convention of 1864, concluded between the United States of America and the United States of Colombia , for the adjustment of claims of American citizens against

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