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46-539: Ndumo hosts a diverse range of habitats including sand forest , dense riverine forest , floodplains , alluvial plains , reed beds , grassland , broad-leaved and acacia woodlands and extremely dense thornveld . Ndumo is popular for its birdlife and despite its small size, the reserve has recorded in excess of 430 bird species including residents and seasonal migrants. The park's abundance of pans, floodplains and rivers ( Pongola & Usutu ) provide suitable habitat for many aquatic species. The Maputaland area in general

92-536: A change in the use of coastal resources and advancements in marine technology. The reasons for these changes have not been confirmed; various triggering mechanisms have been theorized such as climate change , the arrival of new people, or the struggle for resources. The South American land mammal age , the Lujanian , corresponds with the late Pleistocene. The Lujanian is a geologic period from 0.8 - 0.11Ma specifically for prehistoric South American fauna. There

138-572: A number of different processes ( nutrient leaching , tectonic activity , river dynamics, etc.), the sand forests are unique and, oftentimes, different from sand forests found elsewhere. Sand forests are well known for their unique biodiversity and high levels of endemism . To date there have been more than 2,500 species of vascular plants and of those, 230 species are endemic within the Maputaland region. Distinct sclerophylly , or vegetation with thickened, hardened foliage that slows moisture loss,

184-753: A return to glacial conditions until 11.7 ka. Paleoclimatology holds that there was a sequence of stadials and interstadials from about 16 ka until the end of the Pleistocene. These were the Oldest Dryas (stadial), the Bølling oscillation (interstadial), the Older Dryas (stadial), the Allerød oscillation (interstadial) and finally the Younger Dryas. The end of the Younger Dryas marks

230-438: A thick humus layer due to the extremely low decomposition rates. Some sandy forests have even been recorded to have more than a meter of leaf litter on top of the white sand. Multiple reasons exist as to why there is such a large accumulation of organic matter including high acidity of the soil, high content of toxic compounds in the litter, and low nutrient quality of the litter. It is very common to find epiphytes , such as

276-576: A true domestic dog have been dated to 14,200 years ago. Domestication first happened in Eurasia but could have been anywhere from Western Europe to East Asia. Domestication of other animals such as cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep did not begin until the Holocene when settled farming communities became established in the Near East. The cat was probably not domesticated before c.  7500 BC at

322-525: Is a characteristic of a vast number of the plants found in this region. Due to nutrient and water restrictions, the vegetation that grows in the sand forests is very specialized. Many of the trees and shrubs have evolved anti-herbivorous defenses . Herbivores seemed to favor vegetation of plants in clay soils over the white sandy soils. In no presence of herbivores however, the clay soil vegetation survived just as well as white sand specialists, but grew much taller and produced more leaf area. Sand forests have

368-549: Is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy , also known as the Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently defined as the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of

414-503: Is conducive for preserving fossils . Neanderthal hominins ( Homo neanderthalensis ) inhabited Eurasia until becoming extinct between 40 and 30 ka, towards the end of the Pleistocene and possibly into the early Holocene and were replaced with modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) who emerged from East Africa about 195,000 years ago. Neanderthals co-existed with the Homo sapiens until they died out. In Eurasia, extinction happened throughout

460-610: Is due to the lack of chronological information. The resemblance of Late Pleistocene species in Northern Africa to modern animals is the same as in Southern Africa but it's extremely difficult to date when these fauna came into place because of the lack of reliable samples from the mid-Pleistocene. Most of the significant fossil records are from the Maghreb because of its geology which helps to create deep caves which

506-499: Is evidence of human habitation in mainland Australia , Indonesia , New Guinea and Tasmania from c. 45,000 BC. The finds include rock engravings, stone tools and evidence of cave habitation. In Australia, there are sites which show evidence of pollen records from the Late Pleistocene and they are mostly found in more temperate regions of the continent. Some megafauna decreased in size over time, while others remained

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552-491: Is relatively rich in birdlife due to ecosystem diversity as well as its geographical location: the area forms the southernmost range for a great many eastern and north-eastern African bird species. The area receives a high annual rainfall. A short list of sought-after bird species resident to Ndumo: Large mammals found in Ndumo include nyala , hippopotamus , Nile crocodile , impala and Cape buffalo . Big cats are absent from

598-545: Is still heavily debated what caused the extinctions. Bison occidentalis and Bison antiquus , an extinct subspecies of the smaller present-day bison, survived the late Pleistocene period, between about 12 and 11 ka ago. Clovis people depended on these bison as their major food source. Earlier kills of camels, horses, and muskoxen found at Wally's beach were dated to 13.1–13.3 ka B.P. Over 50 genera (~ 83%) of megafauna in South and North America went extinct during

644-834: The Amazon basin in Brazil , Peru , and Colombia , along with Malaysia and Indonesia in Asia. They are typically composed of clay soils and nutrient poor white sands. These forests are commonly referred to as "sand forests" in the South African regions. However, in Mozambique, they are known as the "Lucauati forests". In the Amazon, they are colloquially known as campinaranas and campinas , whereas in Asia they are referred to as kerangas . Few studies have been carried out on

690-727: The Great Lakes in North America. Sea levels fell and two land bridges were temporarily in existence that had significance for human migration : Doggerland , which connected Great Britain to mainland Europe; and the Bering land bridge which joined Alaska to Siberia . The last Ice Age was followed by the Late Glacial Interstadial , a period of global warming to 12.9 ka, and the Younger Dryas ,

736-642: The Japanese archipelago has been traced to prehistoric times between 40,000 BC and 30,000 BC. The earliest fossils are radiocarbon dated to c. 35,000 BC. An archeological record of Neanderthals has been found in Asia along with records of two other hominin populations, the Denisovans and Homo floresiensis . Japan was once linked to the Asian mainland by land bridges via Hokkaido and Sakhalin Island to

782-535: The Nile Valley as the Sahara was transformed from grassland to desert. The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and has been radiocarbon dated to between 30,360 and 35,100 years ago. Most of the knowledge of the Late Pleistocene is obtained from regions like Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia , some coastal regions of Maghreb , Libya and Egypt . The only issue with interpreting the data from this region

828-850: The North American land mammal age scale, the Rancholabrean spans the time from c. 240,000 years ago to c. 11,000 years ago. It is named after the Rancho La Brea fossil site in California , characterized by extinct forms of bison in association with other Pleistocene species such as the mammoth . During the Late Pleistocene about 35 genera of megafauna went extinct including species such as mastodons , saber-toothed cats and giant ground sloths . Some other species went extinct in North America but not globally. it

874-609: The Rio Negro ) commonly begin in these sand forests due to their accumulation of humic matter that is easily washed downstream, particularly after heavy rainfall. The majority of bird species found in sand forests is known to prefer sand forest habitat and are found rarely, if at all, in other types of habitats. There have been no studies, however, evaluating the habitat specialization of sand forest birds to determine whether these habitats have unique bird fauna. The majority of these birds are small ground dwellers. They often forage in

920-603: The Wisconsin glaciation (North America), though technically that began much later. The Last Glacial Maximum was reached during the later millennia of the Würm/Weichselian, estimated between 26 ka and 19 ka when deglaciation began in the Northern Hemisphere. The Würm/Weichselian endured until 16 ka with Northern Europe, including most of Great Britain , covered by an ice sheet. The glaciers reached

966-734: The Younger Dryas , some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began. The term Upper Pleistocene is currently in use as a provisional or "quasi-formal" designation by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Although the three oldest ages of the Pleistocene (the Gelasian , the Calabrian and the Chibanian ) have been officially defined, the late Pleistocene has yet to be formally defined. Following

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1012-627: The geologic time scale , preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian (commonly known as the Middle Pleistocene). The beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the transition between the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and the beginning of the Last Interglacial around 130,000 years ago (corresponding with the beginning of Marine Isotope Stage 5 ). The Late Pleistocene ends with the termination of

1058-526: The mammoth , mastodon , and Irish elk became extinct. Upper Paleolithic people also made paintings and engravings on walls. Cave paintings have been found at Lascaux in the Dordogne which may be more than 17,000 years old. These are mainly buffalo , deer , and other animals hunted by humans. Later paintings occur in caves throughout the world, including Altamira , Spain, and in India, Australia, and

1104-482: The Alps and interglacials (temperate phase). The evidence of the changes in climatic conditions was from fragmentary sequences in formerly glaciated areas in northern Europe . The only domesticated animal in the Pleistocene was the dog , which evolved from the grey wolf into its many modern breeds . It is believed that the grey wolf became associated with hunter-gatherer tribes around 15 Ka. The earliest remains of

1150-572: The Late Pleistocene as part of the Late Pleistocene extinctions , a trend that continued into the Holocene. In palaeoanthropology , the late Pleistocene contains the Upper Palaeolithic stage of human development, including the early human migrations of modern humans outside of Africa, and the extinction of all archaic human species. Paleolithic Epipalaeolithic Mesolithic Neolithic The proposed beginning of

1196-603: The Late Pleistocene. Some species which went extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene in Southern Africa are the giant warthog , long-horn buffalo, Southern springbok , etc. These species were common because their distribution changed in response to climatic influences on vegetation. Carnivores were more widespread due to their varying habitat requirements. In Egypt , the Late (or Upper) Palaeolithic began sometime after 30,000 BC. People in North Africa had relocated to

1242-673: The Pleistocene but those that happened during the Later Pleistocene were of megafauna and there were no replacements for the extinct species. Some Molluscan species went extinct but not on the same scale as the mammals living during the time. Some examples of species which extinct without replacements include the Straight-tusked elephant ( Palaeoloxodon antiquus ), Giant deer ( Megaloceros giganteus ), cave bear ( Ursus spelaeus ) and woolly rhinoceros ( Coelodonta antiquitatis ). Several large mammalian species including

1288-482: The Pleistocene. most mega mammals (>1000kg) and large mammals (>40kg) went extinct by the end of the Late Pleistocene. During this period there was a major cooling event called the Younger Dryas and the Clovis culture of capturing game became more prominent. Diverse factors such as climate change may have triggered this extinction but it's still in debate what the major factors were. The Late Pleistocene saw

1334-680: The Sahara. Magdalenian hunter-gatherers were widespread in western Europe about 20 -12.500 cal BP years ago until the end of the Pleistocene. An example of this is the antler-working done by the human groups who lived in the Santimamine cave in the Magdalenian. They invented the earliest known harpoons using reindeer horn. Climatic conditions during the Late Pleistocene in Eurasia were predominantly cold with glaciation events happening in northern Europe , northwest Siberia and

1380-463: The Usuthu River. Today that river is reserved for the hippos and crocodiles while our children die from drought. The wild fruits are left to fatten the monkeys, and the rhinos graze on the graves of our ancestors. The unresolved dispute over control of this land, and ongoing issues with Community Based Natural Resource Management as a conservation model in the province (Meer 2010), has resulted in

1426-751: The anomalous situation that the eastern part of this declared provincial game reserve is now occupied and farmed by locals. This is despite its status as a Ramsar wetland of international importance, declared in 1997. Farmland is replacing the indigenous vegetation and wildlife, and crocodiles no longer nest along the river. Sand forest A sand forest is a type of rare subtropical forest region, distinctive due to its unique combination of plant (often rare plant ) and animal species, and their restriction to ancient coastal dunes. Sand forests are found in Maputaland in South Africa, as well as parts of

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1472-470: The boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Hominids in all parts of the world were still culturally and technologically in the Palaeolithic (Old Stone) Age . Tools and weapons were basic stone or wooden implements. Nomadic tribes followed moving herds. Non-nomadics acquired their food by gathering and hunting . Its present physical geography and climate have changed over time caused by

1518-490: The brief Last Interglacial warm period (~130–115,000 years ago), where temperatures were comparable to or warmer than the Holocene, the Late Pleistocene was dominated by the cool Last Glacial Period , with temperatures gradually lowering throughout the period, reaching their lowest during the Last Glacial Maximum around 26-20,000 years ago. Most of the world's large ( megafaunal ) animals became extinct during

1564-682: The earliest, again in the Near East . A butchered brown bear patella found in Alice and Gwendoline Cave in County Clare and dated to 10,860 to 10,641 BC indicates the first known human activity in Ireland . The topography and geography of Asia were subject to frequent changes such as the creation of land bridges when sea levels dropped which helped with the expansion and migration of human populations . The first human habitation in

1610-691: The late Pleistocene is the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period (PGP) 126 ka when the Riß glaciation (Alpine) was being succeeded by the Eemian (Riß-Würm) interglacial period . The Riß-Würm ended 115 ka with the onset of the Last Glacial Period (LGP) which is known in Europe as the Würm (Alpine) or Devensian (Great Britain) or Weichselian glaciation (northern Europe); these are broadly equated with

1656-408: The movement of tectonic plates and volcanoes but glacial cycles and sea level variation have a more significant effect on the vertebrate communities during the Late Pleistocene. The Late Pleistocene was the time when most animals evolved to resemble modern-day animals and they managed to live through the Late mid-Pleistocene since there were no extinction events of megafauna until the end of

1702-569: The north but was unconnected at this time when the main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu , Kyushu and Shikoku were all separate entities. Human migrations happened during this time with people coming in from Eurasia . From about 28 ka, there were migrations across the Bering land bridge from Siberia to Alaska . The people became the Native Americans . It is believed that the original tribes subsequently moved down to Central and South America under pressure from later migrations. In

1748-473: The ocean over millions of years as the shoreline and water level slowly shifted. Researchers have speculated that these forest systems have been related to the Late Pleistocene and Holocene dry periods. Podsolization is a process in which the upper layer of soil becomes acidic due to the leaching of nutrients. This process combined with the lack of nutrients in the upper horizon results in only white sand being left behind. Because sandy soils can result from

1794-470: The park. Elephants are prolific at the neighbouring Tembe Elephant Park . As with all parts of Maputaland, malaria is endemic and visitors are advised to take the proper precautions. There is an Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife campsite and hutted camp. This park is to be included into the: Usuthu-Tembe-Futi Transfrontier Conservation Area . In 1924, the area that is now the Ndumo Game Reserve

1840-930: The regenerated forest. Because sand forests are isolated in small patches, they have been mostly protected from the destruction of the Amazon rainforest . However, they are still at risk of disturbance. Sand forests are extremely sensitive to destruction due to the harsh growth and survival conditions. Since the conditions are so tough to thrive in once an ecosystem declines, it may take hundreds of years for it to develop again. Some sand forests overlap with protected areas and indigenous lands, but most do not. Although they are not immediately threatened, sand forests are still in danger from ever-increasing deforestation , hydroelectric projects , and mineral extractions . Peru has actively incorporated sand forests in three protected areas. Authors who have done research in campinas have also made recommendations for conservation in their work. Late Pleistocene The Late Pleistocene

1886-401: The result of anthropogenic burning done by indigenous people. They would burn swaths of sand forest to obtain better hunting and farming grounds. Fires of any kind can have both positive and negative effects on the ecosystem. In some instances, a fire can cause one or just a few species to predominate when the forest begins to regenerate. However, fire can also promote more diversity within

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1932-402: The sand forests. Those studies that have been conducted, the majority of the research has been on the plant diversity within these forests. There have been no comprehensive studies undertaken in the white sand forests. A full understanding of the process in which they have emerged is lacking. However, it is thought that the sand forests are the fragments of coastal dunes which were separated from

1978-428: The species being perennials and evergreens Sand forests have vegetation gradients that closely coincide with saturation gradients. These saturation gradients are affected by rainfall and topography and, therefore, the vegetation is also affected by these same factors. Vegetation lower to the ground tends to congregate in areas that have been saturated for the longest period of time. Blackwater rivers (e.g.

2024-557: The underbrush to find food because of the thick organic layers found in the sand forests. Their sharp beaks allow them to break through the thick coating of fruits and obtain the seeds inside. The exact role of fires in sand forests is not known and most studies disagree on the matter. However, evidence has shown that fires can help increase species diversity, particularly those that are specialized for such areas. For example, fire tolerant species may be more likely to colonize here. Historically speaking, some sand forests may have been

2070-471: The wiry orchid ( Microcoelia exilis ), and other lichens growing on the trees. They derive their moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and debris that has accumulated over time. In contrast to tropical rainforests , campinas are "reduced in biomass and have relatively high light penetration." Due to nutrient deficiencies in campina soils, "shrubs and small trees typically have a dwarfed and rachitic aspect with reduced quantities of foliage" with many of

2116-496: Was declared to be a protected area by South Africa. In the 1950s and 60s, the local inhabitants were forcibly evicted from their native lands. Although the Ndumo communities legally contested their right to the land, they were denied the right to resettle the land, instead given financial restitution and (in theory) a say in management. One resident says of this period of time: There we were rich; we ate sweet potatoes, bananas, madumbe [root vegetable], cassava and pumpkins. We drank from

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