NetBlocks is a watchdog organization that monitors cybersecurity and the governance of the Internet . The service was launched in 2017 to monitor Internet freedom .
103-447: NetBlocks publishes original reporting on Internet governance and sustainable energy , providing tools to the public to observe possible Internet restrictions and to estimate the economic consequences of network disruptions. NetBlocks has established a high level of trust in communities around the world, facilitating the spread of information during emergencies and Internet censorship events, according to peer-reviewed research published in
206-688: A rebound effect in which consumers use the money they save to buy more energy-intensive goods and services. For example, recent technical efficiency improvements in transport and buildings have been largely offset by trends in consumer behaviour , such as selecting larger vehicles and homes. Renewable energy sources are essential to sustainable energy, as they generally strengthen energy security and emit far fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuels. Renewable energy projects sometimes raise significant sustainability concerns, such as risks to biodiversity when areas of high ecological value are converted to bioenergy production or wind or solar farms. Hydropower
309-507: A CO 2 pipeline ruptured following a mudslide near Satartia, Mississippi , causing people nearby to lose consciousness. 200 people were evacuated and 45 were hospitalized, and some experienced longer term effects on their health. High concentrations of CO 2 in the air also caused vehicle engines to stop running, hampering the rescue effort. Retrofitting facilities with CCS can help to preserve jobs and economic prosperity in regions that rely on emissions-intensive industry, while avoiding
412-683: A flue gas mixture, compress and transport the CO 2 , inject it into the subsurface, and monitor the overall process. There are three ways that CO 2 can be separated from a flue gas mixture: post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxy-combustion: Absorption, or carbon scrubbing with amines is the dominant capture technology. Other technologies proposed for carbon capture are membrane gas separation , chemical looping combustion , calcium looping , and use of metal-organic frameworks and other solid sorbents . Impurities in CO 2 streams, like sulfur dioxides and water vapor, can have
515-437: A given unit of energy produced, the life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of natural gas are around 40 times the emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat. Natural gas combustion also produces less air pollution than coal. However, natural gas
618-405: A limited impact on global CO 2 emissions.” By July 2024, commercial-scale CCS was in operation at 44 plants worldwide. Sixteen of these facilities were devoted to separating naturally-occurring CO 2 from raw natural gas. Seven facilities were for hydrogen , ammonia , or fertilizer production, seven for chemical production, five for electricity and heat, and two for oil refining . CCS
721-563: A means of reducing anthropogenic CO 2 emissions is more recent. In 1977, the Italian physicist Cesare Marchetti proposed that CCS could be used to reduce emissions from coal power plants and fuel refineries. The first large-scale CO 2 capture and injection project with dedicated CO 2 storage and monitoring was commissioned at the Sleipner gas field in Norway in 1996. In 2005,
824-691: A mitigation tool would also be costly and technically unfeasible. According to the IEA, attempting to abate oil and gas consumption only through CCS and direct air capture would cost USD 3.5 trillion per year, which is about the same as the annual revenue of the entire oil and gas industry. Emissions are relatively difficult or expensive to abate without CCS in the following niches: The IPCC stated in 2022 that “implementation of CCS currently faces technological, economic, institutional, ecological-environmental and socio-cultural barriers.” Since CCS can only be used with large, stationary emission sources, it cannot reduce
927-641: A net increase in air pollution from those facilities. This can be mitigated by pollution control equipment, however no equipment can eliminate all pollutants. Since liquid amine solutions are used to capture CO 2 in many CCS systems, these types of chemicals can also be released as air pollutants if not adequately controlled. Among the chemicals of concern are volatile nitrosamines which are carcinogenic when inhaled or drunk in water. Studies that consider both upstream and downstream impacts indicate that adding CCS to power plants increases overall negative impacts on human health. The health impacts of adding CCS in
1030-406: A path to net-zero emissions . Developing natural gas infrastructure risks carbon lock-in and stranded assets , where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit. The greenhouse gas emissions of fossil fuel and biomass power plants can be significantly reduced through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Most studies use
1133-533: A process by which CO 2 is injected into partially-depleted oil reservoirs in order to extract more oil and then is largely left underground. Since EOR utilizes the CO 2 in addition to storing it, CCS is also known as carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). Oil and gas companies first used the processes involved in CCS in the mid 20th century. Early versions of CCS technologies served to purify natural gas and to enhance oil production. Subsequently, CCS
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#17327731899841236-447: A process in which captured CO 2 is injected into partially-depleted oil reservoirs in order to extract more oil. EOR is both "utilization" and "storage", as the CO 2 left underground is intended to be trapped indefinitely. Prior to 2013, the process was primarily called CCS. In 2013 the term CCUS was introduced to highlight its potential economic benefit, and this term subsequently gained popularity. Around 1% of captured CO 2
1339-428: A quarter of all low-carbon energy , making it the second largest source after hydropower. Nuclear power's lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions—including the mining and processing of uranium —are similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources. Nuclear power uses little land per unit of energy produced, compared to the major renewables. Additionally, Nuclear power does not create local air pollution. Although
1442-465: A relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from industrial and energy-related sources is separated (captured), conditioned, compressed and transported to a storage location for long-term isolation from the atmosphere." The terms carbon capture and storage (CCS) and carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) are closely related and often used interchangeably. Both terms have been used predominantly to refer to enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
1545-487: A reporting initiative providing extensive coverage on the Russian invasion of Ukraine , documenting Russian efforts to disable communications at nuclear sites and in conflict zones. Sustainable energy Energy is sustainable if it "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Definitions of sustainable energy usually look at its effects on
1648-611: A risk of inducing earthquakes, needs effective protection to avoid water pollution, and releases toxic emissions which can be captured. Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. It can either be burned to produce heat and electricity or be converted into biofuels such as biodiesel and ethanol, which can be used to power vehicles. The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if
1751-424: A significant effect on their phase behavior and could cause increased pipeline and well corrosion. In instances where CO 2 impurities exist, a scrubbing separation process is needed to initially clean the flue gas. Storing CO 2 involves the injection of captured CO 2 into a deep underground geological reservoir of porous rock overlaid by an impermeable layer of rocks, which seals the reservoir and prevents
1854-627: A small fraction of the energy in sunlight, producing a given amount of bioenergy requires a large amount of land compared to other renewable energy sources. Second-generation biofuels which are produced from non-food plants or waste reduce competition with food production, but may have other negative effects including trade-offs with conservation areas and local air pollution. Relatively sustainable sources of biomass include algae , waste, and crops grown on soil unsuitable for food production. Carbon capture and storage technology can be used to capture emissions from bioenergy power plants. This process
1957-512: A smaller fraction will most likely prove to be technically or commercially feasible. Global capacity estimates are uncertain, particularly for saline aquifers where more site characterization and exploration is still needed. In geologic storage, the CO 2 is held within the reservoir through several trapping mechanisms : structural trapping by the caprock seal, solubility trapping in pore space water, residual trapping in individual or groups of pores, and mineral trapping by reacting with
2060-401: A solar panel to produce as much energy as was used for its production. Less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. In concentrated solar power , solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. Electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine . Concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation , as some of the heat
2163-487: A sustainable way is a critical challenge for the global goal of limiting climate change while maintaining economic growth and enabling living standards to rise. Reliable and affordable energy, particularly electricity, is essential for health care, education, and economic development. As of 2020, 790 million people in developing countries do not have access to electricity, and around 2.6 billion rely on burning polluting fuels for cooking. Improving energy access in
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#17327731899842266-423: A working assumption that CCS can capture 85–90% of the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from a power plant. Even if 90% of emitted CO 2 is captured from a coal-fired power plant, its uncaptured emissions are still many times greater than the emissions of nuclear, solar or wind energy per unit of electricity produced. Since coal plants using CCS are less efficient, they require more coal and thus increase
2369-569: Is Earth's primary source of energy, a clean and abundantly available resource in many regions. In 2019, solar power provided around 3% of global electricity, mostly through solar panels based on photovoltaic cells (PV). Solar PV is expected to be the electricity source with the largest installed capacity worldwide by 2027. The panels are mounted on top of buildings or installed in utility-scale solar parks . Costs of solar photovoltaic cells have dropped rapidly, driving strong growth in worldwide capacity. The cost of electricity from new solar farms
2472-790: Is a colorless and odorless gas that accumulates near the ground because it is heavier than air. In humans, exposure to CO 2 at concentrations greater than 5% (50,000 parts per million) causes the development of hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis . Concentrations of more than 10% may cause convulsions, coma, and death. CO 2 levels of more than 30% act rapidly leading to loss of consciousness in seconds. Pipelines and storage sites can be sources of large accidental releases of CO 2 that can endanger local communities. A 2005 IPCC report stated that "existing CO2 pipelines, mostly in areas of low population density, accident numbers reported per kilometre of pipeline are very low and are comparable to those for hydrocarbon pipelines." The report also stated that
2575-594: Is a distraction. Some international climate agreements refer to the concept of fossil fuel abatement , which is not defined in these agreements but is generally understood to mean use of CCS. Almost all CCS projects operating today have benefited from government financial support. Countries with programs to support or mandate CCS technologies include the US, Canada, Denmark, China, and the UK. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines CCS as: "A process in which
2678-407: Is a key component, in its 1987 report Our Common Future . It defined sustainable development as meeting "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This description of sustainable development has since been referenced in many definitions and explanations of sustainable energy. There is no universally accepted interpretation of how
2781-444: Is a major source of air pollution, which causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year, with the greatest attributable disease burden seen in low and middle-income countries. Fossil-fuel burning in power plants, vehicles, and factories is the main source of emissions that combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to cause acid rain . Air pollution is the second-leading cause of death from non-infectious disease. An estimated 99% of
2884-402: Is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and leaks during extraction and transportation can negate the advantages of switching away from coal. The technology to curb methane leaks is widely available but it is not always used. Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to climate change mitigation . However, in the long term it does not provide
2987-425: Is a process by which carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from industrial installations is separated before it is released into the atmosphere, then transported to a long-term storage location. The CO 2 is captured from a large point source , such as a natural gas processing plant and is typically stored in a deep geological formation . Around 80% of the CO 2 captured annually is used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR),
3090-449: Is called an "energy penalty". The energy penalty of CCS varies depending on the source of CO 2 . If the flue gas has a very high concentration of CO 2 , additional energy is needed only to dehydrate, compress, and pump the CO 2 . If the flue gas has a lower concentration of CO 2 , as is the case for power plants, energy is also required to separate CO 2 from other flue gas components. Early studies indicated that to produce
3193-472: Is competitive with, or in many places, cheaper than electricity from existing coal plants. Various projections of future energy use identify solar PV as one of the main sources of energy generation in a sustainable mix. Most components of solar panels can be easily recycled, but this is not always done in the absence of regulation. Panels typically contain heavy metals , so they pose environmental risks if put in landfills . It takes fewer than two years for
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3296-504: Is controversial. Nuclear power does not produce carbon pollution or air pollution, but has drawbacks that include radioactive waste , the risk of nuclear proliferation , and the risk of accidents . Switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact , but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. Carbon capture and storage can be built into power plants to remove their carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, but this technology
3399-439: Is controversy over whether nuclear power is sustainable, in part due to concerns around nuclear waste , nuclear weapon proliferation , and accidents . Radioactive nuclear waste must be managed for thousands of years and nuclear power plants create fissile material that can be used for weapons. For each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy has caused far fewer accidental and pollution-related deaths than fossil fuels, and
3502-487: Is essential to make natural gas ready for commercial sale and distribution. Usually after CO 2 is removed, it is vented to the atmosphere. In 1972, American oil companies discovered that large quantities of CO 2 could profitably be used for EOR. Subsequently, natural gas companies in Texas began capturing the CO 2 produced by their processing plants and selling it to local oil producers for EOR. The use of CCS as
3605-517: Is evidence that CCS can help reduce non-CO2 pollutants along with capturing CO2, environmental justice groups are often concerned that CCS will be used as a way to prolong a facility’s lifetime and continue the local harms it causes. Often, community-based organizations would prefer that a facility be shut down and for investment be focused instead on cleaner production processes, such as renewable electricity. Construction of pipelines often involves setting up work camps in remote areas. In Canada and
3708-661: Is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Fossil fuels provide 85% of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 790 million people in developing countries lack access to electricity , and 2.6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. Cooking with biomass plus fossil fuel pollution causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year. Limiting global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F) will require transforming energy production , distribution, storage, and consumption. Universal access to clean electricity can have major benefits to
3811-694: Is generally less expensive than EOR because it does not require a high level of CO 2 purity and because suitable sites are more numerous, which means pipelines can be shorter. Various other types of reservoirs for storing captured CO 2 were being researched or piloted as of 2021: CO 2 could be injected into coal beds for enhanced coal bed methane recovery . Ex-situ mineral carbonation involves reacting CO 2 with mine tailings or alkaline industrial waste to form stable minerals such as calcium carbonate . In-situ mineral carbonation involves injecting CO 2 and water into underground formations that are rich in highly-reactive rocks such as basalt . There,
3914-466: Is harvested unsustainably. Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some cases, the impacts of land-use change , cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels. Use of farmland for growing biomass can result in less land being available for growing food . In
4017-462: Is injected into partially depleted oil fields to enhance production. The CO2 binds with oil to make it less dense, allowing oil to rise to the surface faster. The addition of CO 2 also increases the overall reservoir pressure, thereby improving the mobility of the oil, resulting in a higher flow of oil towards the production wells. Depending on the location, EOR results in around two additional barrels of oil for every tonne of CO 2 injected into
4120-420: Is known as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and can result in net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere. However, BECCS can also result in net positive emissions depending on how the biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported. Deployment of BECCS at scales described in some climate change mitigation pathways would require converting large amounts of cropland. Marine energy has
4223-478: Is likely that over 99% of CO 2 will remain in place for more than 1000 years, with "likely" meaning a probability of 66% to 90%. Estimates of long-term leakage rates rely on complex simulations since field data is limited. If very large amounts of CO 2 are sequestered, even a 1% leakage rate over 1000 years could cause significant impact on the climate for future generations. Facilities with CCS use more energy than those without CCS. The energy consumed by CCS
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4326-558: Is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. Wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. Onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. While collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines . The noise and flickering light created by
4429-955: Is ongoing. Hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. In 2020, hydropower supplied 17% of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20% in the mid-to-late 20th century. In conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. Conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. They can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. Compared to reservoir-based facilities, run-of-the-river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. However, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. Reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and flexible electricity output while also providing security during drought for drinking water supply and irrigation. Hydropower ranks among
4532-482: Is produced from the steam created in underground reservoirs. Geothermal energy provided less than 1% of global energy consumption in 2020. Geothermal energy is a renewable resource because thermal energy is constantly replenished from neighbouring hotter regions and the radioactive decay of naturally occurring isotopes . On average, the greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal-based electricity are less than 5% that of coal-based electricity. Geothermal energy carries
4635-401: Is the golden thread that connects economic growth, increased social equity, and an environment that allows the world to thrive. Development is not possible without energy, and sustainable development is not possible without sustainable energy." UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon The United Nations Brundtland Commission described the concept of sustainable development , for which energy
4738-491: Is the largest source of renewable electricity while solar and wind energy are growing rapidly. Photovoltaic solar and onshore wind are the cheapest forms of new power generation capacity in most countries. For more than half of the 770 million people who currently lack access to electricity, decentralised renewable energy such as solar-powered mini-grids is likely the cheapest method of providing it by 2030. United Nations targets for 2030 include substantially increasing
4841-448: Is to use fewer materials whose production requires a lot of energy, for example through better building design and recycling. Behavioural changes such as using videoconferencing rather than business flights, or making urban trips by cycling, walking or public transport rather than by car, are another way to conserve energy. Government policies to improve efficiency can include building codes , performance standards , carbon pricing , and
4944-567: Is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. In addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. Wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. Modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6% of global electricity in 2019. Electricity from onshore wind farms
5047-487: Is used as a feedstock for making products such as fertilizer, fuels, and plastics. These uses are forms of carbon capture and utilization . In some cases, the product durably stores the carbon from the CO 2 and thus is also considered to be a form of CCS. To qualify as CCS, carbon storage must be long-term, therefore utilization of CO 2 to produce fertilizer, fuel, or chemicals is not CCS because these products release CO 2 when burned or consumed. Some sources use
5150-472: Is very expensive. For instance, removing CO 2 from the flue gas of fossil fuel power plants increases costs by USD $ 50 - $ 200 per tonne of CO 2 removed. There are many ways to reduce emissions that cost less than USD $ 20 per tonne of avoided CO 2 emissions. Options that have far more potential to reduce emissions at lower cost than CCS include public transit , electric vehicles , and various energy efficiency measures. Wind and solar power are often
5253-679: The censorship of social media websites in the country . Following the 2019 Gabonese coup d'état attempt , NetBlocks monitored censorship in the country. The cost of the three-day Internet shutdown following the Zimbabwean fuel protests was also calculated to cost Zimbabwe an estimated $ 17 million. The block of Misplaced Pages in Venezuela and other censorship incidents during the Venezuelan presidential crisis were also monitored by NetBlocks, with several international media outlets covering
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#17327731899845356-533: The least-developed countries and making energy cleaner are key to achieving most of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals , which cover issues ranging from climate action to gender equality . Sustainable Development Goal 7 calls for "access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all", including universal access to electricity and to clean cooking facilities by 2030. Energy efficiency—using less energy to deliver
5459-477: The uranium ore used to fuel nuclear fission plants is a non-renewable resource, enough exists to provide a supply for hundreds to thousands of years. However, uranium resources that can be accessed in an economically feasible manner, at the present state, are limited and uranium production could hardly keep up during the expansion phase. Climate change mitigation pathways consistent with ambitious goals typically see an increase in power supply from nuclear. There
5562-446: The CO 2 may react with the rock to form stable carbonate minerals relatively quickly. Once this process is complete, the risk of CO 2 escape from carbonate minerals is estimated to be close to zero. The global capacity for underground CO 2 storage is potentially very large and is unlikely to be a constraint on the development of CCS. Total storage capacity has been estimated at between 8,000 and 55,000 gigatonnes. However,
5665-459: The IPCC released a report highlighting CCS, leading to increased government support for CCS in several countries. Governments spent an estimated USD $ 30 billion on subsidies for CCS and for fossil-fuel-based hydrogen. Globally, 149 projects to store 130 million tonnes of CO 2 annually were proposed to be operational by 2020. Of these, around 70% were not implemented. Limited one-off capital grants,
5768-474: The Middle East. CCS facilities capture carbon dioxide before it enters the atmosphere. Generally, a chemical solvent or a porous solid material is used to separate the CO 2 from other components of a plant’s exhaust stream. Most commonly, flue gas passes through an amine solvent , which binds the CO 2 molecule. This CO 2 -rich solvent is heated in a regeneration unit to release the CO 2 from
5871-439: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, CCS would increase the cost of electricity generation from coal plants by $ 7 to $ 12/ MWh. The cost of CCS varies greatly by CO 2 source. If the concentration of CO 2 in the flue gas is high, as is the case for natural gas processing, it can be captured and compressed for USD 15-25/tonne. Power plants, cement plants, and iron and steel plants produce more dilute gas streams, for which
5974-466: The United States, around 10% of motor gasoline has been replaced by corn-based ethanol , which requires a significant proportion of the harvest. In Malaysia and Indonesia, clearing forests to produce palm oil for biodiesel has led to serious social and environmental effects , as these forests are critical carbon sinks and habitats for diverse species. Since photosynthesis captures only
6077-473: The United States, oil and gas pipeline construction has historically been associated with a variety of social harms, including sexual violence committed by workers against Indigenous women. Project cost, low technology readiness levels in capture technologies, and a lack of revenue streams are among the main reasons for CCS projects to stop. A commercial-scale project typically requires an upfront capital investment of up to several billion dollars. According to
6180-563: The absence of measures to address long-term liability for stored CO 2 , high operating costs, limited social acceptability and vulnerability of funding programmes to external budget pressures all contributed to project cancellations. In 2020, the International Energy Agency (IEA) stated, “The story of CCUS has largely been one of unmet expectations: its potential to mitigate climate change has been recognised for decades, but deployment has been slow and so has had only
6283-569: The amount of waste that requires geological disposal , but have not yet been deployed on a large-scale commercial basis. Nuclear power based on thorium (rather than uranium) may be able to provide higher energy security for countries that do not have a large supply of uranium. Small modular reactors may have several advantages over current large reactors: It should be possible to build them faster and their modularization would allow for cost reductions via learning-by-doing . Carbon capture and storage Carbon capture and storage ( CCS )
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#17327731899846386-464: The atmosphere, which would be potentially dangerous to life in the surrounding area. If the injection of CO 2 creates pressures underground that are too high, the formation will fracture, potentially causing an earthquake. While research suggests that earthquakes from injected CO 2 would be too small to endanger property, they could be large enough to cause a leak. The IPCC estimates that at appropriately-selected and well-managed storage sites, it
6489-579: The by-products of combustion. Oil spills at sea harm marine life and may cause fires which release toxic emissions. Around 10% of global water use goes to energy production, mainly for cooling in thermal energy plants. In dry regions, this contributes to water scarcity . Bioenergy production, coal mining and processing, and oil extraction also require large amounts of water. Excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material for burning can cause serious local environmental damage, including desertification . Meeting existing and future energy demands in
6592-403: The cheapest way of transporting CO 2 in large quantities onshore and, depending on the distance and volumes, offshore. Transport via ship has been researched. CO 2 can also be transported by truck or rail, albeit at higher cost per tonne of CO 2 . CCS processes involve several different technologies working together. Technological components are used to separate and treat CO 2 from
6695-487: The climate, human health, and the economies of developing countries. Climate change mitigation pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F). These include phasing out coal-fired power plants, conserving energy , producing more electricity from clean sources such as wind and solar , and switching from fossil fuels to electricity for transport and heating buildings. Power output from some renewable energy sources varies depending on when
6798-1194: The concept of sustainability applies to energy on a global scale. Working definitions of sustainable energy encompass multiple dimensions of sustainability such as environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Historically, the concept of sustainable energy development has focused on emissions and on energy security . Since the early 1990s, the concept has broadened to encompass wider social and economic issues. The environmental dimension of sustainability includes greenhouse gas emissions , impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, hazardous waste and toxic emissions, water consumption, and depletion of non-renewable resources. Energy sources with low environmental impact are sometimes called green energy or clean energy . The economic dimension of sustainability covers economic development, efficient use of energy, and energy security to ensure that each country has constant access to sufficient energy. Social issues include access to affordable and reliable energy for all people, workers' rights , and land rights. The current energy system contributes to many environmental problems, including climate change , air pollution, biodiversity loss ,
6901-456: The context of deep and sustained cuts in natural gas consumption, CCS can reduce emissions from natural gas processing . In electricity generation and hydrogen production , CCS is envisioned to complement a broader shift to renewable energy. CCS is a component of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage , which can under some conditions remove carbon from the atmosphere. The effectiveness of CCS in reducing carbon emissions depends on
7004-433: The continued operation of existing plants, as well as associated infrastructure and supply chains. In the United States, the types of facilities that could be retrofitted with CCS are often located in communities that have already borne the negative environmental and health impacts of living near power or industrial facilities. These facilities are disproportionately located in poor and/or minority communities. While there
7107-492: The cost of capture and compression is USD 40-120/tonne CO2. In the United States, the cost of onshore pipeline transport is in the range of USD 2-14/t CO 2 , and more than half of onshore storage capacity is estimated to be available below USD 10/t CO 2 . CCS implementations involve multiple technologies that are highly customized to each site, which limits the industry's ability to reduce costs through learning-by-doing . Compared to other options for reducing emissions, CCS
7210-642: The development of energy-efficient infrastructure to encourage changes in transport modes . The energy intensity of the global economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of gross domestic product (GDP)) is a rough indicator of the energy efficiency of economic production. In 2010, global energy intensity was 5.6 megajoules (1.6 kWh ) per US dollar of GDP. United Nations goals call for energy intensity to decrease by 2.6% each year between 2010 and 2030. In recent years this target has not been met. For instance, between 2017 and 2018, energy intensity decreased by only 1.1%. Efficiency improvements often lead to
7313-459: The economic and social disruption of early retirements. For instance, Germany’s plans to retire around 40 GW of coal-fired generation capacity before 2038 is accompanied by a EUR 40 billion (USD 45 billion) package to compensate the owners of coal mines and power plants as well as support the communities that will be affected. There is potential for reducing these costs if plants are retrofitted with CCS. Retrofitting CO2 capture equipment can enable
7416-473: The emissions from burning fossil fuels in vehicles and homes. The IEA describes "excessive expectations and reliance" on CCS and direct air capture as a common misconception. To reach targets set in the Paris Agreement , CCS must be accompanied by a steep decline in the production and use of fossil fuels. When CCS is used for electricity generation, most studies assume that 85-90% of the CO 2 in
7519-623: The energy sources with the lowest levels of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy produced, but levels of emissions vary enormously between projects. The highest emissions tend to occur with large dams in tropical regions. These emissions are produced when the biological matter that becomes submerged in the reservoir's flooding decomposes and releases carbon dioxide and methane. Deforestation and climate change can reduce energy generation from hydroelectric dams. Depending on location, large dams can displace residents and cause significant local environmental damage; potential dam failure could place
7622-553: The energy system each year between 2016 and 2035 to limit global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Governments can fund the research, development, and demonstration of new clean energy technologies. They can also build infrastructure for electrification and sustainable transport. Finally, governments can encourage clean energy deployment with policies such as carbon pricing , renewable portfolio standards , and phase-outs of fossil fuel subsidies . These policies may also increase energy security . Energy
7725-399: The environment, the economy, and society. These impacts range from greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution to energy poverty and toxic waste . Renewable energy sources such as wind , hydro , solar , and geothermal energy can cause environmental damage but are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources. The role of non-renewable energy sources in sustainable energy
7828-614: The flue gas is captured. However, industry representatives say actual capture rates are closer to 75%, and have lobbied for government programs to accept this lower target. The potential for a CCS project to reduce emissions depends on several factors in addition to the capture rate. These factors include the amount of additional energy needed to power CCS processes, the source of the additional energy used, and post-capture leakage. The energy needed for CCS usually comes from fossil fuels whose mining, processing, and transport produce emissions. Some studies indicate that under certain circumstances
7931-536: The ground. Oil extracted through EOR is mixed with CO 2 , which can then mostly be recaptured and re-injected multiple times. This CO 2 recycling process can reduce losses to 1%, however doing so is energy-intensive. Around 20% of captured CO 2 is injected into dedicated geological storage, usually deep saline aquifers . These are layers of porous and permeable rocks saturated with salty water. Worldwide, saline formations have higher potential storage capacity than depleted oil wells. Dedicated geologic storage
8034-531: The historic fatality rate of nuclear is comparable to renewable sources. Public opposition to nuclear energy often makes nuclear plants politically difficult to implement. Reducing the time and the cost of building new nuclear plants have been goals for decades but costs remain high and timescales long. Various new forms of nuclear energy are in development, hoping to address the drawbacks of conventional plants. Fast breeder reactors are capable of recycling nuclear waste and therefore can significantly reduce
8137-487: The industrial sector are less well-understood. Health impacts vary significantly depending on the fuel used and the capture technology. After CO 2 injected into underground geologic formations, there is a risk of nearby shallow groundwater becoming contaminated. Contamination can occur either from movement of the CO 2 into groundwater or from movement of displaced brine. Careful site selection and long-term monitoring are necessary to mitigate this risk. CO 2
8240-502: The local health and safety risks of geologic CO 2 storage were "comparable" to the risks of underground storage of natural gas if good site selection processes, regulatory oversight, monitoring, and incident remediation plans are in place. As of 2020, the ways that pipelines can fail is less well-understood for CO 2 pipelines than for natural gas or oil pipelines, and few safety standards exist that are specific to CO 2 pipelines. While infrequent, accidents can be serious. In 2020
8343-562: The lowest-cost ways to produce electricity, even when compared to power plants that do not use CCS. The dramatic fall in the costs of renewable power and batteries has made it difficult for fossil fuel plants with CCS to be cost-competitive. In the literature on climate change mitigation , CCS is described as having a small but critical role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC estimated in 2014 that forgoing CCS altogether would make it 138% more expensive to keep global warming within 2 degrees Celsius. Excessive reliance on CCS as
8446-636: The plant's capture efficiency, the additional energy used for CCS itself, leakage, and business and technical issues that can keep facilities from operating as designed. Some large CCS implementations have sequestered far less CO 2 than originally expected. Additionally, there is controversy over whether CCS is beneficial for the climate if the CO 2 is used to extract more oil. Fossil fuel companies heavily promote CCS. Many environmental groups regard CCS as an unproven, expensive technology that will perpetuate dependence on fossil fuels . They believe other ways to reduce emissions are more effective and that CCS
8549-485: The pollution associated with mining and transporting coal. CCS is one of the most expensive ways of reducing emissions in the energy sector. Deployment of this technology is very limited. As of 2024, CCS is used in only 5 power plants and in 39 other facilities. Nuclear power has been used since the 1950s as a low-carbon source of baseload electricity. Nuclear power plants in over 30 countries generate about 10% of global electricity. As of 2019, nuclear generated over
8652-514: The pollution caused by extracting and transporting fuel. In strategies to mitigate climate change, CCS could have a critical but limited role in reducing emissions. Other ways to reduce emissions such as solar and wind energy, electrification , and public transit are less expensive than CCS and also much more effective at reducing air pollution. Given its cost and limitations, CCS is envisioned to be most useful in specific niches. These niches include heavy industry and plant retrofits. In
8755-525: The proportion of renewable energy in the world's energy supply. According to the International Energy Agency, renewable energy sources like wind and solar power are now a commonplace source of electricity, making up 70% of all new investments made in the world's power generation. The Agency expects renewables to become the primary energy source for electricity generation globally in the next three years, overtaking coal. The Sun
8858-592: The release of toxins into the environment, and water scarcity. As of 2019, 85% of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels. Energy production and consumption are responsible for 76% of annual human-caused greenhouse gas emissions as of 2018. The 2015 international Paris Agreement on climate change aims to limit global warming to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) and preferably to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F); achieving this goal will require that emissions be reduced as soon as possible and reach net-zero by mid-century. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass
8961-408: The reservoir rocks to form carbonate minerals. Mineral trapping progresses over time but is extremely slow. Once injected, the CO 2 plume tends to rise since it is less dense than its surroundings. Once it encounters a caprock, it will spread laterally until it encounters a gap. If there are fault planes near the injection zone, CO 2 could migrate along the fault to the surface, leaking into
9064-430: The same amount of electricity, a coal power plant would need to burn 14 - 40% more coal and a natural gas combined cycle power plant would need to burn 11 - 22% more gas. When CCS is used in coal power plants, it has been estimated that about 60% of the energy penalty originates from the capture process, 30% comes from compression of the extracted CO 2 , and the remaining 10% comes from pumps and fans. Depending on
9167-539: The same goods or services, or delivering comparable services with less goods—is a cornerstone of many sustainable energy strategies. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has estimated that increasing energy efficiency could achieve 40% of greenhouse gas emission reductions needed to fulfil the Paris Agreement's goals. Energy can be conserved by increasing the technical efficiency of appliances, vehicles, industrial processes, and buildings. Another approach
9270-705: The scientific journal Nature . On 25 November 2017, NetBlocks and the Digital Rights Foundation provided information about the nationwide censorship of Facebook , Twitter , YouTube and other social media services by the Pakistani government following the Tehreek-e-Labaik protests . During the 2018–2019 Sudanese protests , NetBlocks stated that the Sudanese government maintains "an extensive Internet censorship regime" following
9373-618: The situation with NetBlocks' work. In July 2020, as the Somalian Parliament passed a motion of no confidence in Prime Minister Hassan Ali Khaire , NetBlocks reported that Internet access had been disrupted impeding media coverage of political and public reactions to events on the ground, presenting evidence contradicting network operator Hormuud Telecom 's claim that the outage was due to "windy conditions." From February 2022, NetBlocks set up
9476-575: The smallest share of the energy market. It includes OTEC , tidal power , which is approaching maturity, and wave power , which is earlier in its development. Two tidal barrage systems in France and in South Korea make up 90% of global production. While single marine energy devices pose little risk to the environment, the impacts of larger devices are less well known. Switching from coal to natural gas has advantages in terms of sustainability. For
9579-449: The solvent. The CO 2 stream then undergoes conditioning to remove impurities and bring the gas to an appropriate temperature for compression. The purified CO 2 stream is compressed and transported for storage or end-use and the released solvents are recycled to again capture CO 2 from the flue gas. After the CO 2 has been captured, it is usually compressed into a supercritical fluid and then injected underground. Pipelines are
9682-418: The surrounding population at risk. Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into deep underground heat and harnessing it to generate electricity or to heat water and buildings. The use of geothermal energy is concentrated in regions where heat extraction is economical: a combination is needed of high temperatures, heat flow, and permeability (the ability of the rock to allow fluids to pass through). Power
9785-571: The technology used, CCS can require large amounts of water. For instance, coal- fired power plants with CCS may need to use 50% more water. Since plants with CCS require more fuel to produce the same amount of electricity or heat, the use of CCS increases the "upstream" environmental problems of fossil fuels. Upstream impacts include pollution caused by coal mining, emissions from the fuel used to transport coal and gas, emissions from gas flaring , and fugitive methane emissions. Since CCS facilities require more fossil fuel to be burned, CCS can cause
9888-451: The term CCS, CCU, or CCUS more broadly, encompassing methods such as direct air capture or tree-planting which remove CO 2 from the air. In this article, the term CCS is used according to the IPCC's definition, which requires CO 2 to be captured from point-sources such as the flue gas of a power plant. In the natural gas industry, technology to remove CO 2 from raw natural gas has been used since 1930. This processing
9991-422: The trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can displace natural ecosystems , degrade soils , and consume water resources and synthetic fertilisers. Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas
10094-401: The turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. Wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. Little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. Turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier-to-recycle blades
10197-446: The upward migration of CO 2 and escape into the atmosphere. The gas is usually compressed first into a supercritical fluid. When the compressed CO 2 is injected into a reservoir, it flows through it, filling the pore space. The reservoir must be at depths greater than 800 meters to retain the CO 2 in a fluid state. As of 2024, around 80% of the CO 2 captured annually is used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). In EOR, CO 2
10300-716: The wind blows and the sun shines. Switching to renewable energy can therefore require electrical grid upgrades, such as the addition of energy storage . Some processes that are difficult to electrify can use hydrogen fuel produced from low-emission energy sources. In the International Energy Agency 's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35% of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023. Wind and solar market share grew to 8.5% of worldwide electricity in 2019, and costs continue to fall. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that 2.5% of world gross domestic product (GDP) would need to be invested in
10403-614: The world's population lives with levels of air pollution that exceed the World Health Organization recommended limits. Cooking with polluting fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene is responsible for nearly all indoor air pollution, which causes an estimated 1.6 to 3.8 million deaths annually, and also contributes significantly to outdoor air pollution. Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children. Environmental impacts extend beyond
10506-799: Was also used in one iron and steel plant . Additionally, three facilities worldwide were devoted to CO 2 transport/storage. As of 2024, the oil and gas industry is involved in 90% of CCS capacity in operation around the world. Eighteen facilities were in the United States, fourteen in China, five in Canada, and two in Norway. Australia, Brazil, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates had one project each. As of 2020, North America has more than 8000 km of CO 2 pipelines, and there are two CO 2 pipeline systems in Europe and two in
10609-483: Was discussed as a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . Around 70% of announced CCS projects have not materialized, with a failure rate above 98% in the electricity sector. As of 2024 CCS was in operation at 44 plants worldwide, collectively capturing about one-thousandth of greenhouse gas emissions. 90% of CCS operations involve the oil and gas industry. Plants with CCS require more energy to operate, thus they typically burn additional fossil fuels and increase
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