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71-571: NMHU was first established as New Mexico Normal School in 1893, with prominent archaeologist Edgar Lee Hewett serving as its first president. The institution became New Mexico Normal University in 1902, and primarily offered teacher education ; it adopted its current name of New Mexico Highlands University in 1941, as it expanded its programs beyond teaching. NMHU now offers graduate and undergraduate programs in arts and sciences, business, education, nursing, and social work. Located in Las Vegas ,

142-673: A wheelchair much of the time; after their return to the United States, she entered a sanatorium in Santa Fe, New Mexico for a time. She died in the fall of 1905. Hewett kept on working. The result was the Antiquities Act of 1906, a towering piece of American legislation by any standards. As a result of the Antiquities Act, it was now no longer necessary for Congress to authorize permanent withdrawal of land for

213-427: A city with a population of over 13,000, Highlands' main campus is close to recreational and wilderness areas and is within an hour's drive of Santa Fe and two hours from Albuquerque. The majority of NMHU's approximately 3,765 students are from New Mexico and Latino ; the university is recognized as a Hispanic Serving Institution by the U.S. Department of Education , which denotes a total undergraduate enrollment that

284-479: A commercial opportunity that the puebleños would go on to develop into a major and economically significant cottage industry in the region. The Santa Fe Indian Market , probably the world's leading exposition for Native American art, has an economic impact on northern New Mexico estimated at nearly $ 20,000,000 annually. San Ildefonso (and Santa Clara ) black-on-black pottery, some of it by descendants of Maria and Julian Martinez, features prominently to this day among

355-519: A euphemism for a person suffering tuberculosis —and at her doctors' advice, the Hewetts started to spend time in the warmer climate of northern New Mexico . Tuberculosis was considered incurable as antibiotics had not been discovered. As a result, Edgar Hewett was exposed to, and became fascinated by, the prehistoric ruins in Frijoles Canyon near Santa Fe —a site that would eventually become

426-479: A more "modern" nature was produced at some of the pueblos of the region in the first part of the 20th century, but it was intended for the tourist trade , and had little to do with the pottery of antiquity. The artifacts found during the excavations provided evidence that the Native Americans of the region could do better at making pottery. Shortly after the first World War, an opportunity arose to revive

497-475: A platform for its director, but also as a center for the development of professional archaeologists. Its first professional papers were published the year it opened. Neil Judd , Alfred V. Kidder , Sylvanus Morley , and Earl Morris were among the prominent archaeologists who spent time there, Judd and Kidder in particular contributing to the excavations of many of the same sites that had interested Hewett. These educational successes aside, Hewett's appointment at

568-527: A position he would hold until his death in 1946. The School would provide Hewett not only with a mouthpiece, but also a base for his increasingly professional (if still controversial) research activities and students and collaborators to do the work. The process of preserving the sites of the Pajarito Plateau proved difficult and time-consuming, partly because interactions among the affected parties were complex, and partly because when Roosevelt passed

639-601: A serious problem by the end of the 19th century. In 1902, Iowa Congressman John F. Lacey , who chaired the House Committee on the Public Lands, traveled to the Southwest with the rising anthropologist Edgar Lee Hewett , to see for himself the extent of the pot hunters' impact. His findings, supported by an exhaustive report by Hewett to Congress detailing the archaeological resources of the region, provided

710-490: A wide variety of protected areas. The Antiquities Act was signed into law by President Theodore Roosevelt during his second term in office. The act resulted from concerns about protecting mostly prehistoric Native American ruins and artifacts—collectively termed " antiquities "—on federal lands in the West, such as at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico . Removal of artifacts from these lands by private collectors, "pot hunters," had become

781-850: Is accredited by the Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs ( ACBSP ). The School of Social Work is accredited by the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). The School of Social and Behavioral Sciences is accredited by the Master's in Psychology and Counseling Accreditation Council (MPCAC). The Department of Forestry is accredited by the Society of American Foresters (SAF). NMHU has several bachelor's and master's degree programs spanning six schools and colleges; these include business administration, counseling, nursing, social work, and

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852-487: Is an act that was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by Theodore Roosevelt on June 8, 1906. This law gives the president of the United States the authority to, by presidential proclamation , create national monuments from federal lands to protect significant natural, historic, or scientific features. The Act has been used more than a hundred times since its enactment to create

923-649: Is one-quarter or more Hispanic. Highlands' programs explicitly focus on its multiethnic student body, especially the Latino and American Indian cultures distinctive of New Mexico. NMHU is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and also has specialty accreditations for many programs. The School of Education received full accreditation by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) in 2012. The School of Business

994-448: Is the largest protected area proclaimed. George W. Bush signed proclamation Proclamation 8031 to establish the monument in 2006, and President Barack Obama expanded its size in 2016. The smallest, Father Millet Cross National Monument (now part of a state park), was a mere 0.0074 acres (30 m ). For any excavation, the Act requires that a permit (Antiquities Permit) be obtained from

1065-560: The 63 national parks include areas originally designated as national monuments. The first use of the Act protected a large geographic feature: President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower National Monument on September 24, 1906. President Roosevelt also used it to create the Grand Canyon National Monument (now Grand Canyon National Park ) and sixteen other sites. At 583,000 square miles (1,510,000 km ), Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

1136-688: The Maxwell Museum of Anthropology . His collaborations with other archaeologists also increased with the passage of time. By 1910 he was collaborating with the Smithsonian Institution on work in Frijoles Canyon; Neil Judd was one of the students there. By 1915 he was director of exhibits for the Panama–California Exposition in San Diego , responsible for assembling the central exhibit "The Story of Man through

1207-479: The National Trust for Historic Preservation . Since the Antiquities Act became law, all but three presidents, Richard Nixon , Ronald Reagan , and George H.W. Bush , have chosen to enlarge or dedicate new national monuments. President Obama established more monuments than any president, with 29 in total. The previous record was held by President Clinton with 19 monuments. President Carter dedicated

1278-631: The Pueblo people whom he studied. The Antiquities Act , which he had worked on, authorized the establishment by the executive branch of such national monuments . Hewett was born in Warren County, Illinois , on November 23, 1865. He was educated at Tarkio College in Missouri and thereafter settled in Florence, Colorado , as a member of the school system. He eventually became superintendent of

1349-532: The University of New Mexico . This of course exposed him to complaints from his critics about cronyism , but ensured that he at least had a stable power base within the institution. The museum was empowered by the legislature to acquire land containing some key archaeological sites in the state that were not yet protected by the Antiquities Act, and under Hewett, it did so. Hewett was able to commingle public (Museum) and private (SAR) resources as he saw fit, but

1420-510: The "Best of Show" award winners at the Market, as well as more pedestrian but still high-quality work that has far transcended the tourist trinkets that were being produced in the pueblos at the beginning of the 20th century. The School of American Archaeology (later School of American Research, and now the School for Advanced Research , or SAR) lost little time in establishing itself not merely as

1491-510: The Act would soon be put, repeatedly and vigorously, to its (or at least Hewett's) intended purpose. The first archaeological site to be preserved under the Antiquities Act was the Arizona complex that would become the centerpiece of the eponymous Montezuma Castle National Monument . Hewett knew of Montezuma Castle from his work inventorying the Southwest for the GLO and Lacey, and he knew that it

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1562-579: The Ages". This led in turn to his assuming directorship of the San Diego Museum of Man , which was created as a permanent institution from the exposition's collections established by Hewett. This museum survives today as one of the institutions in San Diego's Balboa Park district. Hewett's increasing ties to university life exposed him to the " publish or perish " mindset of academia , and here

1633-474: The Antiquities Act into law on June 8, 1906, and Hewett's place in the history of the conservation movement was secured. Ironically, Roosevelt's first use of the Antiquities Act was not to protect one of the ruins that Hewett had made his life's passion, but rather to establish Devil's Tower National Monument in Wyoming , a site of more geological and scenic interest than archaeological significance. However,

1704-532: The Antiquities Act, requiring Congressional consent for any future creation or enlargement of national monuments in Wyoming . The second time followed Jimmy Carter 's use of the Act to create 17 national monuments in Alaska covering 56 million acres (230,000 km ). The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act rescinded Carter's withdrawals while establishing those areas as national parks or other site types and requires Congressional ratification of

1775-946: The Chaco Canyon field school, a particular favorite of his, until 1937. He continued in his roles at the SAR and the Museum of New Mexico until the last year of his life, chairing the joint meeting of the managing board in August 1946. Edgar Lee Hewett died on December 31, 1946. His ashes are interred at the New Mexico Museum of Art in Santa Fe , one of the units of the Museum of New Mexico that he helped create, next to those of his long-time friend and supporter Alice Fletcher . Antiquities Act The Antiquities Act of 1906 ( Pub. L.   59–209 , 34  Stat.   225 , 54 U.S.C.   §§ 320301 – 320303 )

1846-1271: The Cowboys / Cowgirls and compete in the NCAA 's Division II Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference . Ten varsity athletics programs are offered, including women's soccer, men's and women's cross-country, women's track and field, volleyball, men's and women's basketball, wrestling, baseball, softball and football. In the 1997–98 academic year, New Mexico Highlands University established an extended learning center in Rio Rancho and began offering upper-division undergraduate and graduate courses in business, accounting, education, and social work. The center has since added studies in criminal justice, public affairs administration, computer science and general and school counseling. NMHU also has centers in Albuquerque , Santa Fe , and Farmington . 35°35′46″N 105°13′15″W  /  35.59611°N 105.22083°W  / 35.59611; -105.22083 Edgar Lee Hewett Edgar Lee Hewett (November 23, 1865 – December 31, 1946)

1917-608: The Florence schools. In 1894 he became a member of the faculty of the Colorado State Normal School in Greeley, Colorado (today the University of Northern Colorado ), where he received a master's degree in 1893. Hewett's 1891 marriage to Cora Whitford proved eventful for his eventual career and prominence. Cora was described in contemporary accounts as "frail"—frequently (and almost certainly in this case)

1988-687: The Hyde Expedition were forbidden to excavate there. This set the stage for Hewett to deliver a truly influential report to Congress—and he delivered. On September 3, 1904, freshly back from Geneva, Hewett submitted to the United States General Land Office (GLO), which at this time had jurisdiction over government lands in the Southwest, a "Memorandum concerning the historic and prehistoric ruins of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, and their preservation." This report rapidly made its way to Congress and Lacey, who

2059-574: The Pajarito Plateau intensified during his time at the Normal School. He enlisted students at the Normal School in the surveying of the Plateau, which gave him a basis for putting his studies there on a more scientific footing. He also learned the value of working "the smoke-filled room " to achieve support for his goals. This was one of the traits that set him apart from his contemporaries such as Richard Wetherill , and his skills contributed to

2130-459: The Plateau was not exactly widespread, but such as it was, the ranchers relied upon it for sustenance, and perceived a threat to their economic well-being if the land was put off limits to ranching and farming. (Many years later, Valles Caldera National Preserve was established in the adjoining Jemez Mountains with language that explicitly mandated promoting the economic interests of the region in terms of agriculture and forestry though that law

2201-467: The Plateau's sites—while his rivals would not. Negotiations over a new monument were long and contentious, but finally, on February 11, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed the new Bandelier National Monument , naming it for Adolph Bandelier who had died recently. The monument was rather smaller than Hewett had hoped, covering only Frijoles Canyon, some comparatively empty land to the southwest, and an outlier (now Tsankawi ), and omitting among others

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2272-431: The Plateau, although he continued to defer to Bandelier's expertise on the region for many years. Hewett rapidly came to believe that the Plateau's archaeological sites constituted a national resource that should be preserved, and in the 1890s he advocated creation of a "Pajarito National Park" that would protect essentially the entire Plateau. However, the time was not yet ripe for such a step. Contemporary agriculture on

2343-570: The School and the education it afforded its students, and to have the "incompetent" Hewett sacked. Local pressures sufficed to keep him in the job, and eventually Boas and colleagues were placated through formation of a similar institute in Mexico City . In 1909 another action of the territorial legislature created the Museum of New Mexico . Hewett was a logical choice to be its first director, and

2414-559: The School ruffled feathers among the old school of American archaeology, which was largely centered on the East Coast and took a decidedly condescending stance toward the "amateur" Hewett, Alice Fletcher's backing notwithstanding. One of his most vocal critics was Franz Boas , who had started the first archaeology PhD program in the United States at Columbia University in New York . Boas and several of his colleagues wanted to control

2485-507: The Secretary of the department which has jurisdiction over those lands. Presidents have historically tended to create more monuments during their second terms or lame duck periods. Presidential powers under the Act have been reduced twice. The first time followed the controversial proclamation of Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943. The 1950 law that incorporated Jackson Hole into an enlarged Grand Teton National Park also amended

2556-411: The Southwest. He also continued his politicking; not satisfied with Bandelier National Monument (even though it expanded beyond the land in the original proclamation), he continued to lobby for creation of a Pajarito National Park. Nothing came of this advocacy, however. As time passed, Hewett's academic credentials came to be more recognized, and he spent time and effort building academic archaeology in

2627-491: The arrangement was a matter of concern and in 1959 the two institutions were forced to separate. Today, the Museum of New Mexico is a subdivision of the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs. Hewett remarried in 1911, to Donizetta Jones Wood, who would survive him. During this period he continued to do field work, his growing reputation ensuring that he would be invited to join expeditions ranging far beyond

2698-491: The centerpiece attraction of Bandelier National Monument . Hewett's interest in Frijoles Canyon was timely, for ethnologist Adolph Bandelier had just started to describe, through both scientific papers and his novel The Delight Makers (1890), prehistoric life on the Pajarito Plateau . Hewett came to know Bandelier and consider him his mentor in his own studies. By 1896 Hewett himself was conducting field work on

2769-485: The creation of the Pajarito National Park was starting to change. John F. Lacey , a congressman from Iowa , had visited northern New Mexico in 1902 to see the effects of pot hunting on ancient sites, and had enlisted Hewett as a guide. He was so impressed that he retained Hewett to report to Congress on the archaeological resources of the region. By this time Hewett had become more adept at working

2840-445: The end of 1907, Chaco Canyon itself had been made a national monument , thus preserving the most extensive site of ruins of the Pueblo culture . However, Hewett was not satisfied; he had his eye on other extensive and significant candidates for preservation, notably his long-time favorites on the Pajarito Plateau, that promised to be more controversial. He therefore turned his attention to the problems of getting these sites preserved, as

2911-437: The eyes of Hewett's many critics, would characterize and compromise much of his later writing as well) and having them translated into the required French . The resulting dissertation, bearing the title Les Communautés anciennes dans le desert Americain , was favorably received, and sufficed to earn Hewett his degree despite his inability to defend it in the customary French. Meanwhile, the political landscape that had prevented

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2982-520: The field (at the Pajarito Plateau) at summer camps, a highly innovative practice at the time and one that reinforced the concerns that his critics had about his enthusiasm for preserving the sites there. Particularly contentious was the fact that he included women in his field camps. By early 1903 he was pressured out of the president's office. Hewett is the namesake for buildings at today's New Mexico Highlands University. Hewett's interest in

3053-418: The founding of a normal school at Las Vegas, New Mexico . The New Mexico Normal School, as it was originally called (renamed New Mexico Normal University in 1902, later becoming New Mexico Highlands University as it is today), took some time to form, but was ready for its first class of students in 1898. By this time Hewett had achieved a modicum of fame, at least locally, and had become friendly with some of

3124-465: The high-quality work of antiquity, driven as much by Hewett's curiosity about the potters of the past as anything else. He made the acquaintance of a potter at San Ildefonso Pueblo named Maria Martinez —a name that would become a watchword in Native American art. Hewett set Maria and her husband Julian, at that point proficient artisans in a polychrome style of pottery common at San Ildefonso,

3195-417: The matriarch potter of San Ildefonso Pueblo , were instrumental in establishing San Ildefonso as a center for Native American pottery. He helped stimulate the rebirth of pottery as a significant folk art form in the region. Hewett also had a significant role in the formation of Bandelier National Monument and Chaco Culture National Historical Park , established to preserve extensive prehistoric ruins of

3266-408: The modern reader as annoyingly patronizing to (yet still respectful of) the people he studied, but Hewett was, after all, a product of his times. Hewett continued to work as a field archaeologist practically until his death. He played a major role in securing funding for the excavation of Kuaua pueblo ruins, helping to preserve the murals with the aid of Wesley Bliss, but he drove a reconstruction of

3337-507: The monuments are to be confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care and management of the objects to be protected. Protection of sites can include restrictions on mining, logging, grazing, commercial fishing, and hunting; known as land withdrawals, these are typically described in the presidential proclamation establishing the monument. Some areas designated as national monuments have later been converted to or incorporated into national parks or national historical parks . 28 of

3408-456: The most acreage to national monuments, mostly in areas in Alaska . On April 26, 2017, President Donald Trump signed Executive Order 13792 directing a review of the law and its uses. The Act was intended to allow the president to set aside certain valuable public natural areas as park and conservation land. The 1906 act stated that it was intended for: "... the protection of objects of historic and scientific interest." These areas are given

3479-544: The natural sciences. According to U.S. News & World Report, NMHU is one of the top 100 schools for economically disadvantaged students and ranks among the top 45-59 public schools nationwide; it is among the top 12 percent of schools in the 2022 Social Mobility Index, which measures the extent to which institutions provide opportunities for students with family incomes below the national median, based on metrics such as tuition cost, indebtedness among graduates, and post-graduate employment. NMHU's athletic teams are nicknamed

3550-665: The necessary impetus for the passage of the legislation. The Act failed to deter purposeful, criminal looting at these protected sites and was deemed too vague, eventually resulting in passage of the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 . The Antiquities Act has been praised by several groups for its ability to protect important sites, including The Wilderness Society , the National Parks Conservation Association , The Pew Charitable Trusts , and

3621-436: The next phase of his career. Upon stepping down from his position at the Normal School, Hewett decided that he needed to improve his academic credentials in order to advance. He earned a doctorate in anthropology from the University of Geneva in 1904. He spent little time in residence at the university, developing his dissertation mainly by collating a number of papers which he had written previously (a practice that, in

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3692-565: The number of national monuments created under the Antiquities Act began to climb. In 1907 the Archaeological Institute of America gave Hewett an additional platform, by establishing the School of American Archaeology, later the School of American Research , in Santa Fe. Hewett's friend Alice Fletcher , by then the doyenne of American archaeology, was one of the prime backers of the School; Hewett became its first director,

3763-431: The political system, and his skills were starting to show some results, frictions at the Normal School notwithstanding. He had traveled to Washington, D.C. in 1900 (no small journey at the time) and befriended the prominent anthropologist Alice Cunningham Fletcher among others. In 1902, he wrote a pointed complaint about the pot-hunting practices, which he believed were destroying resources at Chaco Canyon . Wetherill and

3834-493: The pot hunters or agriculture in the vicinity, some temporary de facto restrictions on the pot hunting having already come into being before the monument was created. It was therefore a good test case for Hewett's vision as embodied in the Antiquities Act, and creation of the national monument caused comparatively few complaints. Another site closer to home that Hewett had studied, at today's Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument in southwestern New Mexico, would soon follow, and by

3905-499: The power brokers who were behind the creation of the Normal School. He was appointed in 1897 as the first president of the New Mexico Normal School. Hewett's time at the head of the Normal School can be viewed as generally successful. The college was organized along conventional lines for normal colleges, and commenced with several areas of pedagogy directed to the production of degreed teachers, who were needed by

3976-451: The purpose of preservation of cultural or other resources; a presidential proclamation would now suffice. This apparent short-circuiting of separation of powers was controversial at the time, and has remained so for the 100 years since its passage, but Lacey's experienced hand guided the bill through Congress, meeting the objections of its critics and propelling it toward passage and presidential signature. President Theodore Roosevelt signed

4047-469: The reins of government to William Howard Taft , enthusiasm in the White House for preserving such sites was diminished. Another factor had to do with Hewett's own personality. He had many supporters, but also many critics, and some of the latter complained that his real goal was to ensure that he , Edgar L. Hewett, D.Sc., Director of the School of American Research, would have access to, and control of,

4118-474: The results were less flattering to Hewett than many of his earlier activities. Much of his later work, or at least his publications, became somewhat repetitive. His 1943 book Ancient Life in the American Southwest , cited below, amounts to a rehashing of a lifetime of archaeology without contributing anything new, and most of it could have been written at least 20 years earlier. Its tone also strikes

4189-521: The site as if it were a set of ruins, as a setting for the commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary of Coronado's arrival in New Mexico. However, by the 1930s his basically romantic approach to field work was looking like more and more of an anachronism. His responsibilities at the University of New Mexico grew less demanding (and conspicuous) over time, although he retained directorship of

4260-459: The state-to-be. The enrollment increased rapidly and for a time exceeded that of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque . However, Hewett fell afoul of some of the powerful figures of the region who disagreed with his increasingly vocal position that the archaeological resources of New Mexico Territory required preservation. He was also criticized for an "unconventional" approach to pedagogy—a euphemism for his enthusiasm for taking students into

4331-495: The task of trying to reproduce the colors and textures seen in the ancestral work of Frijoles Canyon and its vicinity. Almost serendipitously, the Martinezes developed a "black-on-black" style that not only evoked the ancient work but also produced pieces attractive to the modern collector. Hewett, in conjunction with the eccentric entrepreneurs and philanthropists Vera von Blumenthal and Rose Dougan , detected in this pottery

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4402-492: The title of " national monuments ." It also allows the president to reserve or accept private lands for that purpose. The aim is to protect all historic and prehistoric sites on United States federal lands and to prohibit excavation or destruction of these antiquities. With this act, this can be done much more quickly than going through the Congressional process of creating a national park . The Act states that areas of

4473-598: The use of the Antiquities Act in Alaska for withdrawals of greater than 5,000 acres (20 km ). The Trump administration conducted a review of 27 major designations to consider changes and Trump subsequently significantly reduced the size of Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument and Bears Ears National Monument in Utah in 2017. Trump also lifted restrictions on commercial fishing at Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument . The legality of these actions

4544-542: The very significant Puye Cliff Dwellings near Santa Clara Pueblo . However, even the most ardent preservationists had to admit that, from the standpoint of protecting Puebloan sites, Bandelier was much better than nothing. Hewett continued to take an interest in the Pajarito Plateau and its environs, not merely from an archaeological perspective but also from a contemporary one. Many of the Plateau's excavations contained intriguing fragments, and sometimes intact pieces, of pottery , some of it of considerable beauty. Pottery of

4615-400: The western United States. He organized archaeology and anthropology departments at the University of New Mexico and University of Southern California . The UNM department, where Hewett spent much of the latter part of his life, would eventually become one of the world's best known. While at UNM, Hewett founded the Museum of Anthropology of the University of New Mexico, which would later become

4686-570: Was an American archaeologist and anthropologist whose focus was the Native American communities of New Mexico and the southwestern United States . He is best known for his role in gaining passage of the Antiquities Act , a pioneering piece of legislation for the conservation movement ; as the founder and first director of the Museum of New Mexico ; and as the first president of the New Mexico Normal School, now New Mexico Highlands University . Hewett's dealings with Maria Martinez ,

4757-420: Was challenged in federal court, and President Biden restored the original areas and protections in 2021. Although some presidents have chosen to ignore the tradition of preservation of notable environmental or historic areas, no president has entirely undone a predecessor's monument. The United States Supreme Court has repeatedly upheld presidential proclamations under the Antiquities Act, ruling each time that

4828-498: Was installed in the position. The enabling legislation mandated that the museum be managed by the SAR, helping to solidify Hewett's grasp on both positions. Hewett staffed the museum's administrative functions with several of his friends and supporters from the Normal School days, and persuaded Alice Fletcher to take a key advisory role as well. In addition he hired two other women, Marjorie Ferguson (later Lambert; 1908–2006) and Bertha P. Dutton (1903–1994), after he had trained them at

4899-629: Was moved by Hewett's declaration in the Memorandum that "it will be a lasting reproach upon our Government if it does not use its power to restrain" the destruction of the ruins. Hewett spent most of late 1904 and 1905 shuttling between Washington and New Mexico, helping Lacey with a nascent Act of Congress at the one and continuing his archaeological fieldwork at the other. This was a time of personal misfortune for him, however, as Cora Hewett's illness had become terminal. While in Geneva, she had to use

4970-414: Was not only archaeologically significant but also imperiled by aggressive pot hunting (sometimes using dynamite to knock down walls so that rooms within could be excavated). Hewett lent his support to the creation of this national monument, which came into being in 1907. Montezuma Castle was a relatively uncontroversial site, being small, remote, and not heavily (or at least profitably) exploited by either

5041-685: Was replaced by new legislation in 2015 moving the Valles Caldera National Preserve to the National Park Service without the economic language.) These pressures, combined with opposition from Santa Clara Pueblo , prevented Pajarito National Park from being approved at that time. In 1893 the New Mexico territorial legislature, anticipating the day when the Territory would achieve statehood, authorized

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