Misplaced Pages

#184815

93-452: New Alphabet was a personal, experimental project of Crouwel. The typeface was designed to embrace the limitations of the cathode ray tube technology used by early data display screens and phototypesetting equipment, and thus only contains horizontal and vertical strokes. Conventional typefaces can suffer under these limitations, because the level of detail is not high enough, restricting legibility. Crouwel wanted to adapt his design to work for

186-404: A "pulse theory" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665 work Micrographia ("Observation IX"). In 1672 Hooke suggested that light's vibrations could be perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678 and published it in his Treatise on Light in 1690. He proposed that light

279-562: A CRT screen, with easy-to-use editing commands, is faster than keyboarding on a Linotype machine. Storing the text magnetically for easy retrieval and subsequent editing also saves time. An early developer of CRT-based editing terminals for photocomposition machines was Omnitext of Ann Arbor, Michigan. These CRT phototypesetting terminals were sold under the Singer brand name during the 1970s. Early machines have no text storage capability; some machines only display 32 characters in uppercase on

372-512: A CRT screen. The results of this process are then transferred onto printing plates which are used in offset printing . Phototypesetting offered numerous advantages over the metal type used in letterpress printing , including the lack of need to keep heavy metal type and matrices in stock, the ability to use a much wider range of fonts and graphics and to print them at any desired size, and faster page layout setting. Phototypesetting machines project characters onto film for offset printing. Prior to

465-609: A better representation of how "bright" a light appears to be than raw intensity. They relate to raw power by a quantity called luminous efficacy and are used for purposes like determining how to best achieve sufficient illumination for various tasks in indoor and outdoor settings. The illumination measured by a photocell sensor does not necessarily correspond to what is perceived by the human eye and without filters which may be costly, photocells and charge-coupled devices (CCD) tend to respond to some infrared , ultraviolet or both. Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path,

558-556: A body could be so massive that light could not escape from it. In other words, it would become what is now called a black hole . Laplace withdrew his suggestion later, after a wave theory of light became firmly established as the model for light (as has been explained, neither a particle or wave theory is fully correct). A translation of Newton's essay on light appears in The large scale structure of space-time , by Stephen Hawking and George F. R. Ellis . The fact that light could be polarized

651-429: A character on a glass grid, read its width and then scanned the character onto the photographic paper. The scan rate on the paper was fixed but the scan rate from the grid was changed to account for character size. If the vertical scan from the grid was slowed the character on the paper would be larger. Video Setters were almost all newspaper machines and limited to 45 picas wide with a maximum character size of 72 pints. It

744-467: A force of about 3.3 piconewtons on the object being illuminated; thus, one could lift a U.S. penny with laser pointers, but doing so would require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers.   However, in nanometre -scale applications such as nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), the effect of light pressure is more significant and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip nanometre-scale physical switches in integrated circuits

837-572: A large green "S" in the New Alphabet typeface. New Alphabet was digitized in 1996 by Freda Sack and David Quay from The Foundry in London. It is part of the Architype 3 Crouwel Collection , and it consists of three weights. The original concept wasn't limited to three weights, but was intended as a parametric system, giving the possibly to make many different shapes by changing the parameters in

930-411: A lasting molecular change (a change in conformation) in the visual molecule retinal in the human retina, which change triggers the sensation of vision. There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, but not by means of quantum-absorption. Infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of natural thermal imaging , in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by

1023-516: A lens turret which has eight lenses giving different point sizes from the font, generally 8 or 12 sizes, depending on the model. Low-range models offer sizes from 6- to 36-point, while the high-range models go to 72-point. The Compugraphic EditWriter series took the Compuwriter IV configuration and added floppy disk storage on an 8-inch, 320 KB disk. This allows the typesetter to make changes and corrections without rekeying. A CRT screen lets

SECTION 10

#1732781116185

1116-447: A low-range unit that went up to 72 points but there was also a high-range unit that went to 120 points. Some later phototypesetters utilize a CRT to project the image of letters onto the photographic paper. This creates a sharper image, adds some flexibility in manipulating the type, and creates the ability to offer a continuous range of point sizes by eliminating film media and lenses. The Compugraphic MCS (Modular Composition System) with

1209-450: A medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation . Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemoluminescence . In living things, this process is called bioluminescence . For example, fireflies produce light by this means and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake. Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation,

1302-424: A phenomenon which can be deduced by Maxwell's equations , but can be more easily explained by the particle nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum. Light pressure is equal to the power of the light beam divided by c , the speed of light.   Due to the magnitude of c , the effect of light pressure is negligible for everyday objects.   For example, a one-milliwatt laser pointer exerts

1395-419: A process known as fluorescence . Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as phosphorescence . Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles. Cathodoluminescence is one example. This mechanism is used in cathode-ray tube television sets and computer monitors . Certain other mechanisms can produce light: When

1488-458: A rectangle about 200 x 200 points and it would set all the characters in that rectangle before it moved the CRT or the paper. Common characters would still be in memory from the previous moves. It would set all the "e" and "t" then go to the next letter while it was decoding any characters it did not have in memory. If there was a size, width or font change the characters would have to be recalculated. It

1581-428: A sans-serif the drafts were a bunch of misshapen sausages!" Light Light , visible light , or visible radiation is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye . Visible light spans the visible spectrum and is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 terahertz . The visible band sits adjacent to

1674-412: A small LED screen and spell-checking is not available. Proofing typeset galleys is an important step after developing the photo paper. Corrections can be made by typesetting a word or line of type and by waxing the back of the galleys, and corrections can be cut out with a razor blade and pasted on top of any mistakes. Since most early phototypesetting machines can only create one column of type at

1767-410: A source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the diffraction of light (which had been observed by Francesco Grimaldi ) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in the aether . Newton's theory could be used to predict

1860-414: A surface between one transparent material and another. It is described by Snell's Law : where θ 1 is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the first medium, θ 2 is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the second medium and n 1 and n 2 are the indices of refraction , n = 1 in a vacuum and n > 1 in a transparent substance . When a beam of light crosses

1953-518: A time, long galleys of type were pasted onto layout boards in order to create a full page of text for magazines and newsletters. Paste-up artists played an important role in creating production art. Later phototypesetters have multiple column features that allow the typesetter to save paste-up time. Early digital typesetting programs were designed to drive phototypesetters, most notably the Graphic Systems CAT phototypesetter that troff

SECTION 20

#1732781116185

2046-557: A value of 298 000 000  m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mount Wilson to Mount San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299 796 000  m/s . The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary matter ,

2139-603: A video signal, which was then displayed on the CRT to be exposed to the photographic paper or film. Later CRT phototypesetters used high-resolution digitized font data stored in a frame buffer which was used to render the font characters directly to the CRT. Alphanumeric Corporation (later Autologic) produced the APS series. Rudolf Hell developed the Digiset machine in Germany. The RCA Graphic Systems Division manufactured this in

2232-422: Is a method of setting type which uses photography to make columns of type on a scroll of photographic paper . It has been made obsolete by the popularity of the personal computer and desktop publishing which gave rise to digital typesetting . The first phototypesetters quickly project light through a film negative of an individual character in a font , then through a lens that magnifies or reduces

2325-530: Is also affected by the colour spectrum of light, a process known as photomorphogenesis . The speed of light in vacuum is defined to be exactly 299 792 458  m/s (approximately 186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same speed in vacuum. Different physicists have attempted to measure

2418-459: Is an active area of research. At larger scales, light pressure can cause asteroids to spin faster, acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a windmill .   The possibility of making solar sails that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation. Although the motion of the Crookes radiometer was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation

2511-429: Is caused by the surface roughness of the reflecting surfaces, and internal scatterance is caused by the difference of refractive index between the particles and medium inside the object. Like transparent objects, translucent objects allow light to transmit through, but translucent objects also scatter certain wavelength of light via internal scatterance. Refraction is the bending of light rays when passing through

2604-416: Is extremely fast and was one of the first low-cost output systems. The 8400 used up to 12-inch photographic paper and could set camera-ready output. It was a cost reduced version of the 8600 which was faster. The 8600 came standard CRT width of 45 picas and wide width of 68 picas. The 8600 had much more computing power than the 8400 but did not have the memory to store a lot of characters so they were decoded on

2697-462: Is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum. This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer , in which the (slight) motion caused by torque (though not enough for full rotation against friction) is directly caused by light pressure. As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction" which would oppose

2790-654: Is less than in vacuum. For example, the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum. Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium , one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , also in Cambridge. However,

2883-409: Is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible light propagates by massless elementary particles called photons that represents the quanta of electromagnetic field, and can be analyzed as both waves and particles . The study of light, known as optics , is an important research area in modern physics . The main source of natural light on Earth

New Alphabet - Misplaced Pages Continue

2976-449: Is regarded as the start of modern physical optics. Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s. Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's work at an early age and preferred his view to Descartes's theory of the plenum . He stated in his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 that light was composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from

3069-825: Is the Sun . Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire , from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps . With the development of electric lights and power systems , electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. Generally, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is classified by wavelength into radio waves , microwaves , infrared , the visible spectrum that we perceive as light, ultraviolet , X-rays and gamma rays . The designation " radiation " excludes static electric , magnetic and near fields . The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on

3162-504: The Académie des Sciences in 1817. Siméon Denis Poisson added to Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favor of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained by the wave theory of light if and only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. The weakness of

3255-428: The aurora borealis offer many clues as to the nature of light. A transparent object allows light to transmit or pass through. Conversely, an opaque object does not allow light to transmit through and instead reflecting or absorbing the light it receives. Most objects do not reflect or transmit light specularly and to some degree scatters the incoming light, which is called glossiness . Surface scatterance

3348-573: The infrared (with longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies), called collectively optical radiation . In physics , the term "light" may refer more broadly to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not. In this sense, gamma rays , X-rays , microwaves and radio waves are also light. The primary properties of light are intensity , propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum , and polarization . Its speed in vacuum , 299 792 458  m/s ,

3441-431: The reflection of light, but could only explain refraction by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser medium because the gravitational pull was greater. Newton published the final version of his theory in his Opticks of 1704. His reputation helped the particle theory of light to hold sway during the eighteenth century. The particle theory of light led Pierre-Simon Laplace to argue that

3534-624: The refraction of light in his book Optics . In ancient India , the Hindu schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika , from around the early centuries AD developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements ( tanmatra ) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous. The Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of

3627-650: The x glyph looks like a capital I ). Because of this, the typeface was received with mixed feelings by his peers. Most of the letters are based on a grid of 5 by 7 units, with 45-degree corners. Each glyph is represented by two or more sides of a square, with ascenders, descenders or tittles added where necessary. Glyphs with three horizontal bars ( E , 3 ) are represented faithfully, while those with three vertical bars ( M , W ) are not, instead being represented by underlined N and V glyphs respectively. To differentiate between uppercase and lowercase glyphs, uppercase letters are added with an extra horizontal line at

3720-401: The "strobe-through-a-filmstrip-through-a-lens" technology to expose letters and characters onto a 35mm strip of phototypesetting paper that is then developed by a photo processor. The 7200 is a headliner machine that read the character width from the filmstrip as the character is flashed onto the photographic paper so the unit knows how many motor pulses to move the paper. The most common unit was

3813-407: The 8400 typesetter is an example of a CRT phototypesetter. This machine loads digital fonts into memory from an 8-inch floppy disk. There was a dual floppy which could also be used with a 1 or 2 hard disk option. Additionally, the 8400 is able to set type-in point sizes between 5- and 120-point in 1/2-point increments. Type width could be adjusted independently of size. It had a movable CRT that covered

New Alphabet - Misplaced Pages Continue

3906-487: The Compugraphic Compuwriter, uses a filmstrip wrapped around a drum that rotates at several hundred revolutions per minute. The filmstrip contains two fonts (a Roman and a bold or a Roman and an Italic) in one point size. To get different-sized fonts, the typesetter loads a different font strip or uses a 2x magnifying lens built into the machine, which doubles the size of font. The CompuWriter II automated

3999-698: The Photon Corporation produced the ZIP 200 machine for the MEDLARS project of the National Library of Medicine and Mergenthaler produced the Linotron. The ZIP 200 could produce text at 600 characters per second using high-speed flashes behind plates with images of the characters to be printed. Each character had a separate xenon flash constantly ready to fire. A separate system of optics positioned

4092-836: The Russian translation programs of Gilbert King at the IBM Research Laboratories, and built-up mathematical formulas and other material in the Cooperative Computing Laboratory of Michael Barnett at MIT. There are extensive accounts of the early applications, the equipment and the PAGE I algorithmic typesetting language for the Videocomp, that introduced elaborate formatting In Europe, the company of Berthold had no experience in developing hot-metal typesetting equipment, but being one of

4185-525: The U.S. as the Videocomp, later marketed by Information International Inc. Software for operator-controlled hyphenation was a major component of digital typesetting. Early work on this topic produced paper tape to control hot-metal machines. C. J. Duncan, at the University of Durham in England, was a pioneer. The earliest applications of computer-controlled phototypesetting machines produced the output of

4278-406: The advent of phototypesetting, mass-market typesetting typically employed hot metal typesetting – an improvement introduced in the late 19th century to the letterpress printing technique that offered greatly improved typesetting speed and efficiency compared to manual typesetting (where every sort had to be set by hand). The major advancement presented by phototypesetting over hot metal typesetting

4371-456: The amount of energy per quantum it carries. EMR in the visible light region consists of quanta (called photons ) that are at the lower end of the energies that are capable of causing electronic excitation within molecules, which leads to changes in the bonding or chemistry of the molecule. At the lower end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes invisible to humans (infrared) because its photons no longer have enough individual energy to cause

4464-470: The apparent size of images. Magnifying glasses , spectacles , contact lenses , microscopes and refracting telescopes are all examples of this manipulation. There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation . A simple thermal source is sunlight , the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000  K (5,730  °C ; 10,340  °F ). Solar radiation peaks in

4557-481: The band after that. The printing scan rate had to be held constant to prevent overexposing or underexposing the type. White space was not scanned but the beam would jump to the next black position. If it was working on a narrow column the paper speed was faster and if it was on a wide set of columns the paper speed was decreased With this technology characters larger than the CRT imaging area were printed. It would print about 4000 newspaper column lines per minute whether it

4650-605: The beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem. In 55 BC, Lucretius , a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists , wrote that "The light & heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove." (from On the nature of the Universe ). Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted. Ptolemy (c. second century) wrote about

4743-452: The boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not orthogonal (or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam. This change of direction is known as refraction . The refractive quality of lenses is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change

SECTION 50

#1732781116185

4836-592: The concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma rays), additional generation mechanisms include: Light is measured with two main alternative sets of units: radiometry consists of measurements of light power at all wavelengths, while photometry measures light with wavelength weighted with respect to a standardized model of human brightness perception. Photometry is useful, for example, to quantify Illumination (lighting) intended for human use. The photometry units are different from most systems of physical units in that they take into account how

4929-503: The diameter of Earth's orbit. However, its size was not known at that time. If Rømer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 227 000 000  m/s . Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel

5022-497: The eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler . He argued in Nova theoria lucis et colorum (1746) that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816 André-Marie Ampère gave Augustin-Jean Fresnel an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a transverse wave . Later, Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light and presented it to

5115-434: The eyes and rays from a source such as the sun. In about 300 BC, Euclid wrote Optica , in which he studied the properties of light. Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night. If

5208-437: The fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements ; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that goddess Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from

5301-564: The fly. The unit would set the characters line at a time as long as they fit on the CRT. Small type may be set 6 to 8 lines before the photo paper was advanced. The paper advance was much faster than the 8400 CRT move or 8400 paper advance. All the fonts were stored on a hard disk. 8600 was a big step forward from the Video Setters which ended with the Video Setter V. Video setter was much like a closed circuit TV system that looked at

5394-425: The force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief." Usually light momentum is aligned with its direction of motion. However, for example in evanescent waves momentum is transverse to direction of propagation. In

5487-421: The human eye responds to light. The cone cells in the human eye are of three types which respond differently across the visible spectrum and the cumulative response peaks at a wavelength of around 555 nm. Therefore, two sources of light which produce the same intensity (W/m ) of visible light do not necessarily appear equally bright. The photometry units are designed to take this into account and therefore are

5580-404: The image on the page. An enormous advance was made by the mid-1960s with the development of equipment that projects the characters from CRT screens. Early CRT phototypesetters, such as Linotype's Linotron 1010 from 1966, used the same type of film negative for the font source as traditional optical phototypesetters did, but by instead scanning the font negative via a flying spot scanner array to

5673-418: The infrared and only a fraction in the visible spectrum. The peak of the black-body spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10 micrometre wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into

SECTION 60

#1732781116185

5766-401: The infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it. Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nm and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the human eye cannot detect

5859-479: The largest German type foundries, they applied themselves to the transference. Berthold successfully developed its Diatype (1960), Diatronic (1967), and ADS (1977) machines , which led the European high-end typesetting market for decades. Compugraphic produced phototypesetting machines in the 1970s that made it economically feasible for small publications to set their own type with professional quality. One model,

5952-505: The lens switch and let the operator use multiple settings. Other manufacturers of photo compositing machines include Alphatype , Varityper, Mergenthaler , Autologic , Berthold , Dymo , Harris (formerly Linotype's competitor "Intertype"), Monotype , Star/Photon , Graphic Systems Inc. , Hell AG , MGD Graphic Systems , and American Type Founders . Released in 1975, the Compuwriter IV holds two filmstrips, each holding four fonts (usually Roman, Italic, bold, and bold Italic). It also has

6045-426: The luminous body, rejecting the "forms" of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo as well as the "species" of Roger Bacon , Robert Grosseteste and Johannes Kepler . In 1637 he published a theory of the refraction of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves. Although Descartes

6138-431: The machine. In 2015, Joshua Koomen developed, based on the original instructions, a digital version of New Alphabet in the form of a web-app. The application enables the user to produce any possible setting for the New Alphabet. Other typefaces designed by Crouwel in the same collection are Architype Gridnik , Architype Fodor , Architype Stedelijk and Architype Catalogue. Phototypesetting Phototypesetting

6231-413: The movement of matter. He wrote, "radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than

6324-433: The new technologies, instead of adapting the technologies to meet the design. Since his letter shapes only contain horizontals and verticals, some of the glyphs are unconventional, while others bear virtually no resemblance to any version of the letters they represent (in some examples, the frequently appearing a glyph looks like a J , K looks like a t , numeral 1 resembles a 7 , numeral 8 resembles capital H , and

6417-600: The phototypesetters. In 1949 the Photon Corporation in Cambridge, Massachusetts developed equipment based on the Lumitype of Rene Higonnet and Louis Moyroud . The Lumitype-Photon was first used to set a complete published book in 1953, and for newspaper work in 1954. Mergenthaler produced the Linofilm using a different design, and Monotype produced Monophoto. Other companies followed with products that included Alphatype and Varityper. To provide much greater speeds,

6510-436: The popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped", it had ceased to be light. The study of light and the interaction of light and matter is termed optics . The observation and study of optical phenomena such as rainbows and

6603-417: The printed page. Subsequent editing of this copy required that the entire process be repeated. The operator would re-keyboard some or all of the original text, incorporating the corrections and new material into the original draft. CRT-based editing terminals, which can work compatibly with a variety of phototypesetting machines, were a major technical innovation in this regard. Keyboarding the original text on

6696-407: The size of the character onto photographic paper or film, which is collected on a spool in a light-proof canister. The paper or film is then fed into a processor, a machine that pulls the paper or film strip through two or three baths of chemicals, from which it emerges ready for paste-up or film make-up. Later phototypesetting machines used other methods, such as displaying a digitised character on

6789-601: The spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous , as in light-emitting diodes , gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs , mercury-vapor lamps , etc.) and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated , as in a laser or a microwave maser . Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron , can produce visible radiation: cyclotron radiation , synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through

6882-435: The speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer , a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope , Rømer observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons , Io . Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse

6975-593: The start of desktop publishing software, Trout Computing in California introduced VepSet, which allows Xerox Ventura Publisher to be used as a front end and wrote a Compugraphic MCS disk with typesetting codes to reproduce the page layout. In retrospect, cold type paved the way for the vast range of modern digital fonts, with the lighter weight of equipment allowing far larger families than had been possible with metal type. However, modern designers have noted that compromises of cold type, such as altered designs, made

7068-406: The sun". The Indian Buddhists , such as Dignāga in the fifth century and Dharmakirti in the seventh century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy. René Descartes (1596–1650) held that light was a mechanical property of

7161-428: The top of a lowercase letter. Many of Crouwel's peers were of the opinion that the design was too experimental and that it went too far. The typeface received a lot of newspaper coverage, which sparked a lively debate over typefaces as an art form, compared to their practicality in everyday use. Crouwel largely agreed with the criticism and noted that it was mostly an exercise in theory, stating in 2009: "The New Alphabet

7254-484: The transition to digital when a better path might have been to return to the traditions of metal type. Adrian Frutiger , who in his early career redesigned many fonts for phototype, noted that "the fonts [I redrew] don’t have any historical worth...to think of the sort of aberrations I had to produce in order to see a good result on Lumitype! V and W needed huge crotches in order to stay open. I nearly had to introduce serifs in order to prevent rounded-off corners – instead of

7347-486: The ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white thermal emission is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or a welder 's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation). Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces " emission lines " in

7440-514: The user view typesetting codes and text. Because early generations of phototypesetters could not change text size and font easily, many composing rooms and print shops had special machines designed to set display type or headlines. One such model is the PhotoTypositor , manufactured by Visual Graphics Corporation , which lets the user position each letter visually and thus retain complete control over kerning . Compugraphic's model 7200 uses

7533-624: The very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light. Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420–680 nm to as broadly as 380–800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1,050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310–313 nm. Plant growth

7626-427: The visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units, and roughly 44% of the radiation that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs , which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames , but these also emit most of their radiation in

7719-480: The wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. The existence of the hypothetical substance luminiferous aether proposed by Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson–Morley experiment . Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied

7812-436: Was 1 column at 4000 lines or 4 columns at 1000 lines each. As phototypesetting machines matured as a technology in the 1970s, more efficient methods were found for creating and subsequently editing text intended for the printed page. Previously, hot-metal typesetting equipment had incorporated a built-in keyboard, such that the machine operator would create both the original text and the medium (lead type slugs) that would create

7905-408: Was a lot slower than the 8600. For a fast typesetter at the time, the APS 5 from AutoLogic was hard to beat. It had a 64-speed paper advance and did not stop to set type. It figured what needed to be set in a band of data and matched the electronic advance to the mechanical advance. If there were parts of a character that were not included in the band of printing it would be printed in the next band or

7998-473: Was designed to provide input for. Though such programs still exist, their output is no longer targeted at any specific form of hardware. Some companies, such as TeleTypesetting Co. created software and hardware interfaces between personal computers like the Apple II and IBM PS/2 and phototypesetting machines which provided computers equipped with it the capability to connect to phototypesetting machines. With

8091-576: Was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the luminiferous aether . As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium. The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young ). Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in

8184-414: Was featured on the album cover for Joy Division 's 1988 compilation album Substance , where the album title is spelled out with characters corresponding to "subst1mce". Brett Wickens , who contributed to the cover, claimed this was for aesthetic reasons. The 1991 album reissue featured different artwork, although in the same style: the word "substance" was not spelled out; rather, the artwork featured

8277-432: Was for the first time qualitatively explained by Newton using the particle theory. Étienne-Louis Malus in 1810 created a mathematical particle theory of polarization. Jean-Baptiste Biot in 1812 showed that this theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization. At that time the polarization was considered as the proof of the particle theory. To explain the origin of colours , Robert Hooke (1635–1703) developed

8370-404: Was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media. Descartes is not the first to use the mechanical analogies but because he clearly asserts that light is only a mechanical property of the luminous body and the transmitting medium, Descartes's theory of light

8463-627: Was over-the-top and never meant to be really used. It was unreadable." New Alphabet was one of 23 digital typefaces acquired by the Museum of Modern Art in January 2011 for its Architecture and Design Collection. This collection of typefaces were some of the first acquired by MoMA, and were on display in a 2011–2012 exhibition called Standard Deviations: Types and Families in Contemporary Design , or Standard Deviations . New Alphabet

8556-521: Was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313 000 000  m/s . Léon Foucault carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain

8649-471: Was the elimination of the metal type altogether which was not needed by the offset printing process. This cold-type technology could also be used in office environments where hot-metal machines (the Linotype , Intertype or Monotype ) could not. The use of phototypesetting grew rapidly in the 1960s when software was developed to convert marked up copy, usually typed on paper tape, to the codes that controlled

#184815