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71-604: The New England Anti-Vivisection Society (NEAVS) was founded in 1895 in Boston, Massachusetts, in response to the migration of European vivisection practices to the United States. In 1871, Professor Henry Ingersoll Bowditch established the first U.S. vivisection lab at Harvard Medical School, inciting concern from Edward Clement, editor-in-chief of the Boston Evening Transcript , which subsequently ran

142-490: A pejorative catch-all term for experimentation on live animals by organizations opposed to animal experimentation, but the term is rarely used by practicing scientists. Human vivisection, such as live organ harvesting , has been perpetrated as a form of torture . Research requiring vivisection techniques that cannot be met through other means is often subject to an external ethics review in conception and implementation, and in many jurisdictions use of anesthesia

213-420: A "wash out" period during which all traces of the tested product are allowed to disperse from the test site. The tests are controversial. They are viewed as cruel as well as unscientific by critics because of the differences between rabbit and human eyes, and the subjective nature of the visual evaluations. The FDA supports the test, stating that "to date, no single test, or battery of tests, has been accepted by

284-579: A decade later, roughly 900 chimpanzees remained in U.S. labs and the vast majority were not being used. In 2012, NEAVS and others organizations submitted a rulemaking petition to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) asking for criteria defining when chimpanzees are no longer needed. On June 26, 2013, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced it would move forward with plans to retire almost 90% of its chimpanzees to sanctuary. The Ethical Science Education Coalition (ESEC)

355-492: A founding member of the Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF). Under Capaldo, the board and staff developed and attempted to implement a succession of new strategies with which to achieve the organization's sole mission of ending the use of animals in science and replacing them with non-animal and scientifically superior alternatives. Highlights of those programs include campaigning to end the use in research of

426-444: A high oxidation or reduction potential must not be tested." The test design requires that the substance be tested on one rabbit initially, and the effect of the substance on the skin must be ascertained before it can be introduced into the eye. If a rabbit shows signs of "severe pain" or distress it must be immediately killed, the study terminated and the compound may not be tested on other animals. In tests where severe eye irritancy

497-513: A human skin equivalent model and the transepicutaneous resistance test (TER). In addition, the use of human corneal cell line (HCE-T cells) is also another good alternative method to test eye irritation on potential chemicals. In September 2009 the OECD validated two alternatives to the Draize eye test: the bovine cornea opacity test (BCOP) and isolated chicken eye test (ICE). A 1995 study funded by

568-520: A licence for an experimental project, 'the Secretary of State shall weigh the likely adverse effects on the animals concerned against the benefit likely to accrue. ' " In Australia , the Code of Practice "requires that all experiments must be approved by an Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee" that includes a "person with an interest in animal welfare who is not employed by the institution conducting

639-426: A number of Boston's influential individuals. The first NEAVS meeting was held at Peabody's house on March 30, 1895, and the first office was opened at 179A Tremont St. in Boston on September 12 of the same year, with Peabody serving as NEAVS president. When Edward Clement became president in 1911, his journalistic expertise boosted both public awareness of vivisection and membership in the organization. George R. Farnum

710-580: A number of reports of coal tar in mascara leading to blindness, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act , placing cosmetics under regulatory control. The following year Draize joined the FDA, and was soon promoted to head of the Dermal and Ocular Toxicity Branch where he was charged with developing methods for testing the side effects of cosmetic products. This work culminated in

781-545: A probe. Ferrier was successful, but many decried his use of animals in his experiments. Some of these arguments came from a religious standpoint. Some were concerned that Ferrier's experiments would separate God from the mind of man in the name of science. Some of the anti-vivisection movement in England had its roots in Evangelicalism and Quakerism. These religions already had a distrust for science, only intensified by

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852-596: A prolonged dissection of a greyhound which attracted wide public comment. Magendie faced widespread opposition in British society, among the general public but also his contemporaries, including William Sharpey who described his experiments aside from cruel as "purposeless" and "without sufficient object", a feeling he claimed was shared among other physiologists. The Cruelty to Animals Act, 1876 in Britain determined that one could only conduct vivisection on animals with

923-615: A report by Draize, his laboratory assistant, Geoffrey Woodard, and division chief, Herbert Calvery, describing how to assess acute, intermediate, and chronic exposure to cosmetics by applying compounds to the skin, penis, and eyes of rabbits. Following this report, the techniques were used by the FDA to evaluate the safety of substances such as insecticides and sunscreens and later adopted to screen many other compounds. By Draize's retirement in 1963, and despite never having personally attached his name to any technique, irritancy procedures were commonly known as "the Draize test" To distinguish

994-595: A series of anti-vivisection editorials. In 1890 George Angell and the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( MSPCA ) held an essay contest entitled "Why I Am Against Vivisection". The winner of the contest, Joseph Greene of Dorchester, Massachusetts, later reached out to lawyer and doctor Philip Peabody, one of the contest judges, with the idea of forming an anti-vivisection society. Peabody agreed, and Greene began organizing

1065-598: A woman committed to alternatives to animal methods in the investigation of women's health or sex differences in research results. NEAVS' campaign against hormone replacement therapy drugs made from the urine of pregnant horses encourages women to use alternatives. NEAVS supports using alternatives to animals in research, testing, and education, and promotes in vitro, epidemiological, and clinical study data as more predictive for humans. NEAVS funds scientists developing alternatives, and advocates for policies requiring use of validated animal alternatives in research and testing. In

1136-420: Is NEAVS' educational affiliate. ESEC's mission is to "end the harmful use of animals at all levels of science education" by providing resources and services that support alternatives to the use of animals in education, specifically the use of animals in terminal labs, live animal demonstrations, training courses, and dissection. ESEC is a proponent of dissection choice legislation and policies which provide students

1207-603: Is NEAVS' sister organization. Founded by Ethel Thurston, PhD, in 1977, AFAAR's mission is to "promote and assist the development and use of alternatives to animals in science." Together, NEAVS and AFAAR have funded alternatives to common animal testing procedures such as the LD50 and Draize test for toxicity. Currently, AFAAR and NEAVS offer a one-year postdoctoral fellowship grant to fund women researchers who work to develop, validate, or use animal alternatives in investigating women's health or sex differences in research results. NEAVS

1278-630: Is a founding member of the Coalition for Consumer Information on Cosmetics (CCIC) and its Leaping Bunny program, which provides consumers with information about certified, cruelty-free companies that do not use animal testing during any product development stage. NEAVS is also the U.S. Executive Office for Cruelty Free International , founded by the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection (BUAV). Cruelty Free International works to end

1349-414: Is aimed at understanding, among other things, sex differences' effect on biomedical research results as well as the implications of such differences for the use of other species to extrapolate animal data to human health; and environmentalism through investigation of the serious and detrimental environmental impact that the use and disposal of millions of animals used in research, testing, and education has on

1420-483: Is an acute toxicity test devised in 1944 by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) toxicologists John H. Draize and Jacob M. Spines. Initially used for testing cosmetics, the procedure involves applying 0.5 mL or 0.5 g of a test substance to the eye or skin of a restrained, conscious animal, and then leaving it for a set amount of time before rinsing it out and recording its effects. The animals are observed for up to 14 days for signs of erythema and edema in

1491-635: Is determined on a case-by-case basis by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee , which contains at least one veterinarian, one scientist, one non-scientist, and one other individual from outside the university. In the United Kingdom, any experiment involving vivisection must be licensed by the Home Secretary . The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 "expressly directs that, in determining whether to grant

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1562-527: Is legally mandated for any surgery likely to cause pain to any vertebrate . In the United States, the Animal Welfare Act explicitly requires that any procedure that may cause pain use "tranquilizers, analgesics, and anesthetics" with exceptions when "scientifically necessary". The act does not define "scientific necessity" or regulate specific scientific procedures, but approval or rejection of individual techniques in each federally funded lab

1633-554: The European Commission and British Home Office evaluated these among nine potential replacements, including the hens' egg chorioallantoic membrane (HET-CAM) assay and an epithelial model cultivated from human corneal cells, in comparison with Draize test data. The study found that none of the alternative tests, taken alone, proved to be a reliable replacement for the animal test. Positive results from some of these tests have been accepted by regulatory bodies, such as

1704-539: The Home Office publishes guideline for eye irritancy tests, with the aim of reducing suffering to the animals. In its 2006 guidelines, it "strongly encourages" in vitro screening of all compounds before testing on animals, and mandates the use of validated alternatives when available. It requires that the test solution's "physical and chemical properties are not such that a severe adverse reaction could be predicted"; therefore "known corrosive substances or those with

1775-870: The Imperial Japanese Army , undertook lethal human experimentation during the period that comprised both the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second World War (1937–1945). In the Filipino island of Mindanao , Moro Muslim prisoners of war were subjected to various forms of vivisection by the Japanese, in many cases without anesthesia. Nazi human experimentation involved many medical experiments on live subjects, such as vivisections by Josef Mengele , usually without anesthesia. Draize test The Draize test

1846-613: The New England Anti-Vivisection Society Monthly in the late 19th-century. In the early 20th-century the magazine changed name to The Animals' Defender . Joseph M. Greene was its editor and used the magazine to promote anti-vaccination material. The Animals' Defender was later renamed the Living Tissue magazine. In 1957, president George R. Farnum stated that the magazine reached 50,000 people. In 1981 NEAVS and its sister organization

1917-420: The scientific community as a replacement [for] ... the Draize test". Because of its controversial nature, the use of the Draize test in the U.S. and Europe has declined in recent years and is sometimes modified so that anaesthetics are administered and lower doses of the test substances used. Chemicals already shown to have adverse effects in vitro are not currently used in a Draize test, thereby reducing

1988-619: The 'interest' of [the physiologist's] experiments". In the early 20th-century the anti-vivisection movement attracted many female supporters associated with women's suffrage . The American Anti-Vivisection Society advocated total abolition of vivisection whilst others such as the American Society for the Regulation of Vivisection wanted better regulation subjected to surveillance, not full prohibition. The Research Defence Society made up of an all-male group of physiologists

2059-533: The 21st century billions of animals have been used for human's benefit through animal testing of consumer products, in the United States and dozens of other countries. Laboratories sticking painful eye irritants into restrained rabbit's eyes to test an eye product and cats being forced to have brain electrocutions to test for neurological pharmaceutical drugs are just two of hundreds of products tested on animals according to PETA (peta.org). Animals don't have to be used for human's wants. Scientists Burch and Russell created

2130-414: The 3Rs: reduction, refinement and replacement to further anti-vivisection. In these 3 Rs alternative successful approaches to testing consumer products have been created. Alternatives like in vitro, computer simulations, cell and tissue samples, and mannequins are reducing the millions of sentient animals forced into painful experiments worldwide. The American Fund for Alternatives to Animal Research (AFAAR)

2201-654: The American Fund for Alternatives to Animal Research (AFAAR) funded research at Tufts University Medical School for an alternative to the Draize test , which applies chemicals such as pesticides, household products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics to the eyes of rabbits. The resulting alternative was later used by a number of product and cosmetics companies. In 1983 NEAVS successfully lobbied to repeal Massachusetts' 1957 pound seizure law, which required animal shelters to sell animals for use in research. This work resulted in

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2272-469: The British Health and Safety Executive and US Department of Health and Human Services , without testing on live animals, but negative results (no irritation) required further in vivo testing. Regulatory bodies have therefore begun to adopt a tiered testing strategy for skin and eye irritation, using alternatives to reduce Draize testing of substances with the most severe effects. In Britain,

2343-630: The Chimps . NEAVS also makes lifetime care commitments to animals in sanctuary and helped support the formation of the North American Primate Sanctuary Alliance. Vivisection Vivisection (from Latin vivus  'alive' and sectio  'cutting') is surgery conducted for experimental purposes on a living organism, typically animals with a central nervous system , to view living internal structure. The word is, more broadly, used as

2414-469: The Department of Ophthalmology at Baylor College of Medicine , conducted a comprehensive review of the Draize eye test in 2001. He also reported that differences in anatomy and biochemistry between the rabbit and human eye indicate that testing substances on rabbits might not predict the effects on humans. However, he noted "that eyes of rabbits are generally more susceptible to irritating substances than

2485-404: The Draize eye test is now a "very mild test", in which small amounts of substances are used and are washed out of the eye at the first sign of irritation. In a letter to Nature , written to refute an article saying that the Draize test had not changed much since the 1940s, Andrew Huxley wrote: "A substance expected from its chemical nature to be seriously painful must not be tested in this way;

2556-593: The Endangered Species Act when found in the wild and "threatened" when in captivity. The petition aimed to reclassify captive chimpanzees as endangered. On June 11, 2013, FWS proposed changing the policy and opened a public comment period. In 2000, the Chimpanzee Health Improvement, Maintenance, and Protection (CHIMP) Act was signed into law, authorizing the retirement of chimpanzees in research who were "not needed". More than

2627-473: The Great Ape Protection and Cost Savings Act (GAPCSA) that would end invasive research on chimpanzees and retire all federally owned chimpanzees to sanctuary. Through its Sanctuary Fund, NEAVS makes grants to organizations providing lifetime care for animals previously used in research. Sanctuaries funded in the past include Animals Asia Foundation , Chimp Haven , Fauna Foundation , and Save

2698-493: The Great Ape Protection and Cost Savings Act (GAPCSA), first introduced in 2008 and again in 2011. If passed, GAPSCA would retire all federally owned chimpanzees to sanctuary and phase out the use of great apes in biomedical research. In 2010 NEAVS, along with other animal protection organizations, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to review a policy listing chimpanzees as "endangered" under

2769-640: The Humane Society Veterinary Medical Association in 2007 indicated that half of U.S. vet schools no longer require terminal labs in core courses. NEAVS' affiliate, the Ethical Science and Education Coalition (ESEC), lobbied and testified before the Massachusetts state legislature in support of a bill that would have given public school students the right to opt out of dissection classes. In 2004 after

2840-486: The U.S. and retire them to sanctuaries. As part of this campaign, NEAVS published a number of scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals examining the utility of chimpanzees in biomedical research. Paper topics include findings of research chimpanzee autopsy reports, the implications of genetic differences between chimpanzees and humans, and the applicability of using chimpanzees as research models for cancer, hepatitis C, and AIDS. NEAVS also lobbied Congress in support of

2911-426: The accuracy of this claim is disputed by many historians. In the 12th century CE, Andalusian Arab Ibn Tufail elaborated on human vivisection in his treatise called Hayy ibn Yaqzan . In an extensive article on the subject, Iranian academic Nadia Maftouni believes him to be among the early supporters of autopsy and vivisection. Unit 731 , a biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of

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2982-530: The animals as "victims" and the apparent sadism that Magendie displayed when teaching his classes. Magendie's experiments were cited in the drafting of the British Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 and Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822 , otherwise known as Martin's Act. The latter bill's namesake, Irish MP and well known anti-cruelty campaigner Richard Martin , called Magendie a "disgrace to Society" and his public vivisections "anatomical theatres" following

3053-401: The anti-vivisection movement in Britain with his experiments when he had a debate with his German opponent, Friedrich Goltz. They would effectively enter the vivisection arena, with Ferrier presenting a monkey, and Goltz presenting a dog, both of which had already been operated on. Ferrier won the debate, but did not have a license, leading the anti-vivisection movement to sue him in 1881. Ferrier

3124-526: The anti-vivisection movement. One polarizing figure in the anti-vivisection movement was François Magendie . Magendie was a physiologist at the Académie Royale de Médecine in France, established in the first half of the 19th century. Magendie made several groundbreaking medical discoveries, but was far more aggressive than some of his contemporaries in the use of animal experimentation. For example,

3195-447: The appropriate license from the state, and that the work the physiologist was doing had to be original and absolutely necessary. The stage was set for such legislation by physiologist David Ferrier . Ferrier was a pioneer in understanding the brain and used animals to show that certain locales of the brain corresponded to bodily movement elsewhere in the body in 1873. He put these animals to sleep, and caused them to move unconsciously with

3266-542: The bill was vetoed by Governor Mitt Romney, who said that the decision should be made by the Massachusetts Department of Education, ESEC's continued advocacy led the State Board of Education to issue a policy in 2005 allowing students to choose alternatives to dissection. NEAVS launched its national Project R&R: Release and Restitution for Chimpanzees in U.S. Laboratories campaign in 2003 to end

3337-554: The discovery of the different functionalities of dorsal and ventral spinal nerve roots was achieved by both Magendie, as well as a Scottish anatomist named Charles Bell . Bell used an unconscious rabbit because of "the protracted cruelty of the dissection", which caused him to miss that the dorsal roots were also responsible for sensory information. Magendie, on the other hand, used conscious, six-week-old puppies for his own experiments. While Magendie's approach would today be considered an abuse of animal rights, both Bell and Magendie used

3408-518: The dose that kills 50% of animals in the test. The resulting test better predicted human lethal blood concentrations. In 2000 collaboration between NEAVS and Tufts University's Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine led Tufts to become the first U.S. veterinary school without a terminal lab requirement, a procedure where students train on live animals before euthanizing them. As a replacement, NEAVS helped develop an alternative program involving spay/neuter surgeries for homeless cats. A survey completed by

3479-454: The environment (women and the environment are the core of NEAVS' Common Ground campaign). In September 2017, Nathan Herschler, J.D. began serving as executive director. The philosophy of NEAVS emphasizes that the use of animals in research, testing, and education is unscientific, as shown in numerous studies; is unnecessary due to the availability of and continuing development of alternatives that yield results superior to animal use; and that

3550-445: The experiment, and an additional independent person not involved in animal experimentation." Anti-vivisectionists have played roles in the emergence of the animal welfare and animal rights movements, arguing that animals and humans have the same natural rights as living creatures, and that it is inherently immoral to inflict pain or injury on another living creature, regardless of the purpose or potential benefit to mankind. At

3621-404: The eyes of humans" making them a conservative model of the human eye. Wilhelmus concluded "The Draize eye test ... has assuredly prevented harm" to humans, but predicts it will be "supplanted as in vitro and clinical alternatives emerge for assessing irritancy of the ocular surface". Industry and regulatory bodies responsible for public health are actively assessing animal-free tests to reduce

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3692-599: The first and strongest anti-pound seizure law in the U.S. As of 2013, 18 states had banned pound seizure. In 1985, NEAVS began funding Bjorn Ekwall, chairman of the Cytotoxicology Laboratory (CTLU) in Sweden, a laboratory which designs and validates alternatives to animal research, to develop an in vitro method of toxicology testing capable of replacing the LD50 test, which assesses substance toxicity based on

3763-488: The first nonhuman species, chimpanzees – human's closest genetic relative (Project R&R: Release and Restitution for Chimpanzees in U.S. Laboratories); ending the use of terminal dog labs at the first veterinary school in the country, a curriculum shift later followed by other schools; and, most recently, reaching out to and incorporating other social movements into the animal protection movement. Examples include support for women doing research that does not involve animals and

3834-538: The humane and ethical arguments against the suffering and death of millions of animals in labs each year has never been stronger given how modern science shows animal use has limitations, dangers, and is little or no benefit to human health. NEAVS continued its work through public outreach, education, legislation and policy change, supporting animal sanctuaries, and funding the development of alternatives to animals in research and science education. In September 2020, NEAVS changed name to Rise for Animals. The NEAVS published

3905-472: The number and severity of tests that are carried out. John Henry Draize (1900–1992) obtained a BSc in chemistry then a PhD in pharmacology, studying hyperthyroidism . He then joined the University of Wyoming and investigated plants poisonous to cattle, other livestock, and people. The U.S. Army recruited Draize in 1935 to investigate the effects of mustard gas and other chemical agents. In 1938, after

3976-517: The patient recover. The demand for more effective treatment shifted emphasis to research with the goal of understanding disease mechanisms and anatomy. This shift had a few effects, one of which was the rise in patient experimentation, leading to some moral questions about what was acceptable in clinical trials and what was not. An easy solution to the moral problem was to use animals in vivisection experiments, so as not to endanger human patients. This, however, had its own set of moral obstacles, leading to

4047-551: The recent publishing of Darwin's Theory of Evolution in 1859. Neither side was pleased with how the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed. The scientific community felt as though the government was restricting their ability to compete with the quickly advancing France and Germany with new regulations. The anti-vivisection movement was also unhappy, but because they believed that it was a concession to scientists for allowing vivisection to continue at all. Ferrier would continue to vex

4118-479: The requirement for Draize testing. Before 2009 the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) had not validated any alternative methods for testing eye or skin irritation potential. However, since 2000 OECD had validated alternative tests for corrosivity, meaning acids, bases and other corrosive substances are no longer required to be Draize tested on animals. The alternative tests include

4189-527: The right to choose alternatives to animal use in their education. NEAVS' Common Ground initiative includes two initial campaigns incorporating support for women in science and environmental stewardship with its animals in research mission. Animal Research is Hazardous Waste examines the millions of animals bred, used, and disposed as contaminated or hazardous waste. NEAVS' Fellowship Grant for Alternatives to Animal Research in Women's Health and Sex Differences funds

4260-545: The same rationalization for vivisection: the cost of animal experimentation being worth it for the benefit of humanity. Many viewed Magendie's work as cruel and unnecessarily torturous. One note is that Magendie carried out many of his experiments before the advent of anesthesia, but even after ether was discovered it was not used in any of his experiments or classes. Even during the period before anesthesia, other physiologists expressed their disgust with how he conducted his work. One such visiting American physiologist describes

4331-534: The same substances. A 2004 study by the U.S. Scientific Advisory Committee on Alternative Toxicological Methods analyzed the modern Draize skin test. They found that tests would: According to the American National Anti-Vivisection Society , solutions of products are applied directly into the animals' eyes, which can cause "intense burning, itching and pain". Clips are placed on the rabbits' eyelids to hold them open during

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4402-452: The skin test, and redness, swelling, discharge, ulceration, hemorrhaging, cloudiness, or blindness in the tested eye. The test subject is commonly an albino rabbit, though other species are used too, including dogs . The animals are euthanized after testing if the test renders irreversible damage to the eye or skin. Animals may be re-used for testing purposes if the product tested causes no permanent damage. Animals are typically reused after

4473-480: The target organ, the tests are now often referred to as "the Draize eye test" and "the Draize skin test". In 1971, before the implementation in 1981 of the modern Draize protocol, toxicologists Carrol Weil and Robert Scala of Carnegie Mellon University distributed three test substances for comparative analysis to 24 different university and state laboratories. The laboratories returned significantly different evaluations, from non-irritating to severely irritating, for

4544-429: The test is permissible only if the substance has already been shown not to cause pain when applied to skin, and in vitro pre-screening tests are recommended, such as a test on an isolated and perfused eye. Permission to carry out the test on several animals is given only if the test has been performed on a single animal and a period of 24 hours has been allowed for injury to become evident." Kirk Wilhelmus, professor in

4615-511: The test period, which can last several days, during which time the rabbits are placed in restraining stocks. The chemicals often leave the eyes "ulcerated and bleeding". In the Draize test for skin irritancy, the test substances are applied to skin that is shaved and abraded (several layers of skin are removed with sticky tape), then covered with plastic sheeting. According to the British Research Defence Society ,

4686-424: The turn of the 19th century, medicine was undergoing a transformation. The emergence of hospitals and the development of more advanced medical tools such as the stethoscope are but a few of the changes in the medical field. There was also an increased recognition that medical practices needed to be improved, as many of the current therapeutics were based on unproven, traditional theories that may or may not have helped

4757-523: The use of animals in product testing worldwide. NEAVS policy advocacy includes petitioning the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to require, when existing, validated alternatives in place of animal testing through the Mandatory Alternatives Petition (MAP) Coalition, lobbying for dissection choice, petitioning the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list captive chimpanzees as endangered along with wild chimpanzees, and lobbying for

4828-474: The use of chimpanzees in invasive biomedical research and provide them permanent homes in sanctuary. Soon after, other organizations allied with NEAVS and after a decade of advocacy the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced it would retire almost 90% of its chimpanzees to sanctuary. Launched in 2004, NEAVS' national campaign, Project R&R: Release and Restitution for Chimpanzees in U.S. Laboratories, aims to end all biomedical research using chimpanzees in

4899-615: Was founded in 1908 to defend vivisection. In the 1920s, anti-vivisectionists exerted significant influence over the editorial decisions of medical journals. It is possible that human vivisection was practised by some Greek anatomists in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. Celsus in De Medicina states that Herophilos of Alexandria vivisected some criminals sent by the king. The early Christian writer Tertullian states that Herophilos vivisected at least 600 live prisoners, although

4970-400: Was not found guilty, as his assistant was the one operating, and his assistant did have a license. Ferrier and his practices gained public support, leaving the anti-vivisection movement scrambling. They made the moral argument that given recent developments, scientists would venture into more extreme practices to operating on "the cripple, the mute, the idiot, the convict, the pauper, to enhance

5041-734: Was president of NEAVS from 1938 until his death in 1971. Author Cleveland Amory was NEAVS president from 1987 until 1998. He has been described as "the founding father of the modern animal protection movement." In anticipation of his retirement, Amory appointed a nominating committee that chose psychologist and former NEAVS board member, Theodora Capaldo, to succeed him. She was elected NEAVS' first woman president in 1998. Amory died unexpectedly later that same year. Capaldo and her newly elected board of directors came with extensive animal protection and animal rights experience and have included individuals with medical, veterinary, psychology, mental health, sociology, and legal credentials, such as Sarah Luick,

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