Misplaced Pages

#379620

69-643: The territory of what is now Vermont was first permanently settled by European settlers when William Dummer , acting governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , ordered the construction of a fort roughly where Brattleboro is located. Massachusetts laid claim to the territory west of the Merrimack River at the time, and it had settlers on the Connecticut River who were prepared to move further north. The border between Massachusetts and

138-474: A Köppen climate classification of Dfb, a temperate continental climate. The rural northeastern section known as the " Northeast Kingdom " often averages 10 °F (5.6 °C) colder than the southern areas of the state during winter. The annual snowfall averages between 60 and 100 inches (1,500 and 2,500 mm) depending on elevation. Vermont is the seventh coldest state in the country. Board of Trade Too Many Requests If you report this error to

207-598: A constitution . The first elections under this constitution were held on March 3, 1778, and on March 12, the new government was organized at Windsor . During the later stages of the Revolutionary War (early 1780s) several Vermont officials engaged in negotiations with British officials, including Frederick Haldimand , the governor of Quebec , about Vermont officially returning to the British side. Just as Haldimand offered generous terms for reunion in 1781,

276-559: A convention in Vermont voted 105–4 to petition Congress to become a state in the federal union. Congress acted on February 18, 1791, to admit Vermont to the Union as the 14th state as of March 4, 1791; two weeks earlier on February 4, 1791, Congress had decided to admit Kentucky as the 15th state as of June 1, 1792. Vermont became the first state to enter the Union after the original 13 states. The revised constitution of 1786, which established

345-578: A greater separation of powers, continued in effect until 1793, two years after Vermont's admission to the Union. Under the Act "To Secure Freedom to All Persons Within This State," slavery was officially outlawed by state law on November 25, 1858, less than three years before the American Civil War . Vermonters provided refuge at several sites for escaped slaves fleeing to Canada, as part of

414-539: A national postal service. Thomas Chittenden was the Governor in 1778–1789 and in 1790–1791. Because the state of New York continued to assert that Vermont was a part of New York, Vermont could not be admitted to the Union under Article IV, Section   3 of the Constitution until the legislature of New York consented. On March 6, 1790, the legislature made its consent contingent upon a negotiated agreement on

483-694: A point 20 miles (32 km) east of the Hudson River , Wentworth assumed the area west of the Connecticut belonged to New Hampshire. New York based its claim on the letters patent , which granted Prince James, Duke of York, brother of King Charles II, all of the lands west of the Connecticut River to Delaware Bay . Wentworth made the first grant, Bennington , a township west of the Connecticut River, on January 3, 1749. Cautioned by New York to cease and desist , Wentworth promised to await

552-582: Is Burlington . Its metropolitan area is also the most populous in the state, with an estimate of 225,562 as of 2020. Although these towns are large enough to be considered cities, they are not incorporated as such. The annual mean temperature for the state is 43 °F (6 °C). Vermont has a humid continental climate , with muddy springs, in general a mild early summer, hot Augusts; it has colorful autumns : Vermont's hills reveal red, orange, and (on sugar maples ) gold foliage as cold weather approaches. Winters are colder at higher elevations. It has

621-661: Is 89 miles (143 km) at the Canada–U.S. border; the narrowest width is 37 miles (60 km) near the Massachusetts border. The width averages 60.5 miles (97.4 km). The state's geographic center is approximately three miles (4.8 km) east of Roxbury , in Washington County . There are fifteen U.S. federal border crossings between Vermont and Canada . Several mountains have timberlines with delicate year-round alpine ecosystems, including Mount Mansfield ,

690-628: Is a state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States . It borders Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. As of the 2020 U.S. census , the state had a population of 643,503, ranking it the second least populated U.S. state . It is the nation's sixth smallest state in area . The state's capital of Montpelier

759-476: Is sometimes credited with coining the name Vermont , but it does not in fact appear until 1777, when, at the suggestion of Thomas Young , it was adopted as the name of the Vermont Republic (replacing New Connecticut , the name the republic had borne for the first six months of its existence). It represents a French translation of Green Mountain(s) . The latter first appears in 1772 in the context of

SECTION 10

#1732772173380

828-462: Is the least populous U.S. state capital . No other U.S. state has a most populous city with fewer residents than Burlington . Native Americans have inhabited the area for about 12,000 years. The competitive tribes of the Algonquian -speaking Abenaki and Iroquoian -speaking Mohawk were active in the area at the time of European encounter. During the 17th century, French colonists claimed

897-471: Is the only state that does not have any buildings taller than 124 feet (38 m) . Land comprises 9,250 square miles (24,000 km ) and water comprises 365 square miles (950 km ), making it the 43rd-largest in land area and the 47th in water area. In total area, it is larger than El Salvador and smaller than Haiti . It is the only landlocked state in New England, and it is the easternmost and

966-459: The Connecticut River , encompassing present-day Vermont. The provincial government of New York sold land grants to settlers in the region, which conflicted with earlier grants from the government of New Hampshire. The Green Mountain Boys militia protected the interests of the established New Hampshire land grant settlers. Ultimately, a group of settlers with New Hampshire land grant titles established

1035-530: The Connecticut River Valley that defines much of its eastern border. A majority of its terrain is forested with hardwoods and conifers . The state has warm, humid summers and cold, snowy winters. Vermont's economic activity of $ 40.6 billion in 2022 is ranked last on the list of U.S. states and territories by GDP , but 21st in GDP per capita. Known for its progressivism , the state was one of

1104-711: The Great Vermont Flood of 1927 , which killed 84 and damaged much of the state's infrastructure, the flood of 1973, which covered many of the state's roads in the southeast, and Tropical Storm Irene in 2011, which caused substantial damage throughout the state. In response to the 1927 flood, the federal government funded construction of six flood control dams in the state, run by the Army Corps of Engineers . These extreme rain and flooding events are expected to intensify with climate change . Vermont has ten incorporated cities. The most populous city in Vermont

1173-558: The Green Mountain Boys . The first humans to inhabit what is now Vermont arrived about 11,000 years ago, as the glaciers of the last ice age receded. Small groups of hunter-gatherers followed herds of caribou , elk , and mastodon through the grasslands of the Champlain Valley . At that time much of region was mixed tundra . The oldest human artifacts are 11,000 year old projectile points found along

1242-522: The Iroquois . It was abandoned by 1670. A short-lived settlement existed at Pointe à l'Algonquin, now Windmill Point, Alburgh . A village with a church, saw mill and fifty huts existed at the present site of Swanton . Much of the eastern shore of Lake Champlain was mapped out with seigniories , but settlers were unwilling to populate the area, possibly because of continual warfare and raiding there. The English also made unsuccessful attempts to colonize

1311-595: The Pennacook . About 3,000 years ago, the Woodland period began. Food was increasingly sourced from domesticated plants, including maize , beans , and squash . Agriculture meant a more sedentary life and larger settlements. Pottery was made from local clay , and tools were made from chert found along the Winooski River . Canoes were used for fishing and travel. The arrival of European explorers in

1380-482: The Pre-Columbian era of Vermont is from found artifacts. About 750 prehistoric sites are known in Vermont, but few have been excavated by archaeologists , and those on private property benefit from no legal protection. About 20 native toponyms survive in the state, including Lake Bomoseen , Lake Memphremagog , Missisquoi River , Monadnock Mountain , and Winooski . In 1609, Samuel de Champlain led

1449-643: The Republican Party grew, Vermont supported Republican candidates. In 1860, it voted for Abraham Lincoln , giving him the largest margin of victory of any state. During the American Civil War , Vermont sent 33,288 troops into United States service, of which 5,224 (more than 15 percent) died. The northernmost land action of the war was the St. Albans Raid —the robbery of three St. Albans banks, perpetrated in October 1864 by Confederate agents. A posse pursued

SECTION 20

#1732772173380

1518-560: The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Reynolds v. Sims required " one man, one vote " redistricting in all states. It had found that many state legislatures had not redistricted and were dominated by rural interests, years after the development of densely populated and industrial urban areas. In addition, it found that many states had an upper house based on geographical jurisdictions, such as counties. This gave disproportionate power to rural and lightly populated counties. The court ruled there

1587-708: The Underground Railroad . From the mid-1850s on, some Vermonters became abolitionists , which they had previously worked to contain in the South. Abolitionist Thaddeus Stevens was born in Vermont and later represented a district in Pennsylvania in Congress. He developed as a national leader and later promoted Radical Republican goals after the American Civil War . As the Whig Party declined and

1656-553: The Vermont Republic in 1777 as an independent state during the American Revolutionary War . The Vermont Republic abolished slavery before any other U.S. state. It was admitted to the Union in 1791 as the 14th state. The geography of the state is marked by the Green Mountains , which run north–south up the middle of the state, separating Lake Champlain and other valley terrain on the west from

1725-559: The Westminster convention, but settlers gathered at yet another convention at Dorset in 1776 and petitioned the Continental Congress to recognize Vermont as a state and seat its delegates. The New York delegation convinced the Congress to deny the petition. Some former Green Mountain Boys companies served in the American Revolutionary War , including in the effort to capture Fort Ticonderoga on May 10, 1775, and

1794-433: The invasion of Canada later that year. Ethan Allen and his then subordinate, Seth Warner , induced the Continental Congress at Philadelphia to create a Green Mountain ranger regiment . Having no treasury, the Congress directed that New York's Provincial Congress pay for the newly authorized regiment; which it did. In 1777 the citizens of Vermont declared their full independence from Great Britain and established

1863-590: The 1600s marked the end of the Woodland period and the beginning of the Abenaki . At that time, there were about 10,000 Indigenous people in what is now Vermont, of whom an estimated 75–90% were killed by European diseases like smallpox . Survivors moved north to New France or assimilated with European settlers. Today, there are no Indian reservations in Vermont. In 2021 , 0.2% of live births in Vermont were to American Indian people. Nearly all information about

1932-526: The Catholic population of Irish and Italians. Based on the colonial past, some Yankee residents considered the French Canadians to have intermarried too frequently with Native Americans. In 1970, the population of Vermont stood at 444,732. By 1980, it had increased by over 65,000 to 511,456. That change, an increase of 15 percent, was the largest increase in Vermont's population since the days of

2001-474: The Confederate raiders into Canada and captured several, before having to turn them over to Canadian officials. Canada reimbursed the banks, released, and later re-arrested some of the perpetrators. Beginning in the mid-19th century, Vermont industries attracted numerous Irish , Scottish , and Italian immigrants , adding to its residents of mostly English and some French Canadian ancestry. Many of

2070-706: The Gospel in Foreign Parts (a missionary organization of the Church of England ), one for the Church of England, one for the first clergyman to settle in the township, one for a school, and two for Wentworth himself. The permanent annual tax on each grant, called a quitrent , was one shilling , paid directly to the King or his representative. While Wentworth's land sales were underway, New York also issued land patents in

2139-542: The Koos Abenaki Nation . In 2016, the state governor proclaimed Columbus Day as Indigenous Peoples Day. Vermont has no federally recognized tribes . Vermont approved women's suffrage decades before it became part of the national constitution. Women were first allowed to vote in the elections of December 18, 1880, when they were granted limited suffrage . They were first allowed to vote in town elections, and later in state legislative races. In 1931, Vermont

New Hampshire Grants - Misplaced Pages Continue

2208-614: The New Yorkers, and went on, with Benedict Arnold , to fight in the American Revolutionary War , where they captured Fort Ticonderoga from the British. On January 15, 1777, representatives of the New Hampshire Grants declared the independence of Vermont . For the first six months of its existence, it was called the Republic of New Connecticut. On June 2, 1777, a second convention of 72 delegates met and adopted

2277-863: The Revolutionary War. In 2002, the State of Vermont incorrectly reported that the Abenaki people had migrated north to Quebec by the end of the 17th century; however, in 2011, the State of Vermont designated the Elnu Abenaki Tribe and the Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation as state-recognized tribes ; in 2012 it recognized the Abenaki Nation of Missisquoi and the Koasek Traditional Band of

2346-527: The age of 21 and females at 18 . It provided for universal adult male suffrage and established a public school system. The Battle of Bennington was fought on August 16, 1777. A combined American force under General John Stark , attacked the Hessian column at Hoosick, New York , just across the border from Bennington. It killed or captured virtually the entire Hessian detachment. General John Burgoyne never recovered from this loss and eventually surrendered

2415-521: The area in the 1600s. In 1724, they built Fort Dummer near what is now Brattleboro , but it remained a small and isolated outpost, often under attack by the Abenaki. With the 1763 Treaty of Paris , France ceded its claims east of the Mississippi River to the Kingdom of Great Britain , making the area more attractive to settlement. At the same time, New England was overcrowded; new land

2484-413: The best land was kept by Wentworth for later resale. Settlers came from across New England, and were obliged to "Plant and Cultivate Five Acres of Land" within five years. Some settlers kept to the agreement and started farms. Others, like Ethan Allen , did not. They wanted to sell the land for profit. Those who purchased New Hampshire Grants ran into disagreements with New York, which began selling off

2553-700: The boundary line between the said two provinces of New Hampshire and New York." Wentworth issued his final two grants on October 17 of that year: Walker and Waltham . New York interpreted the decision as invalidating Wentworth's grants entirely—to the great dismay of area residents—and subsequently divided the territory into four counties, Albany , Charlotte , Cumberland and Gloucester . New York required that grantees surrender their charters, and in many cases buy their lands back from New York at greatly increased prices. Those who would not pay lost legal title to their lands, which New York then reassigned to others. The people, who would later become Vermonters, petitioned

2622-472: The east side of Champlain, provoking the former colony's government to reiterate its claim to the area, citing both its own patent and the New Hampshire letters patent of 1741. In March 1764, Wentworth released a statement to the effect that the resolution of jurisdictional dispute required a royal verdict, which he was certain would be made in his favor. Meanwhile, he encouraged his grantees to settle in

2691-673: The eastern shore of the saltwater Champlain Sea . This time is known as the Paleo-Indian period. By about 8,000 years ago, the Champlain Sea had become the freshwater Lake Champlain and the climate was more temperate , bringing increased diversity of flora and fauna. This was the beginning of the Archaic period . By about 4,300 years ago, the forests were as they are today. Large mammals underwent extinction or migrated north, and

2760-409: The first European expedition to Lake Champlain . He named the lake after himself and made the first known map of the area. The land that is now Vermont remained part of New France until 1763. The French had a military presence around Lake Champlain, since it was an important waterway, but they did very little colonization. In 1666, they built Fort Sainte Anne on Isle La Motte to defend Canada from

2829-438: The first in the U.S. to recognize same-sex civil unions and marriage , has the highest proportion of renewable electricity generation at 99.9%, and is one of the least religious and least racially/ethnically diverse states. Dairy, forestry, maple syrup , and wine are important sectors in Vermont's agricultural economy. Vermont produces approximately 50% of the nation's maple syrup. The French explorer Samuel de Champlain

New Hampshire Grants - Misplaced Pages Continue

2898-462: The first state to legalize cannabis for recreational use by legislative action, and the ninth state in the United States to legalize marijuana for medical purposes. This law was signed by Republican Governor Phil Scott . Vermont is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States and comprises 9,614 square miles (24,900 km ), making it the 45th-largest state. It

2967-492: The governor of New York to confirm the New Hampshire Grants; he complied, in part, by declaring that no other grants should be made until the King's wishes were known. Land not previously granted by New Hampshire was considered open for distribution by New York's government. In 1770, the New York Supreme Court declared all of Wentworth's grants invalid, thereby asserting the province's de jure control over

3036-787: The highest mountain in the state; Killington Peak , the second-highest; Camel's Hump , the state's third-highest; and Mount Abraham , the fifth-highest peak. Areas in Vermont administered by the National Park Service include the Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller National Historical Park (in Woodstock ) and the Appalachian National Scenic Trail . The topography and climate make sections of Vermont subject to large-scale flooding . Incidents include

3105-512: The human population became reliant on smaller game and plants. People developed fishing equipment and stone cookware, and practiced woodworking and food storage. They had time for travel, leisure, and performed elaborate ceremonies. Most of the state's territory was occupied by the Abenaki , south-western parts were inhabited by the Mohicans and south-eastern borderlands by the Pocumtuc and

3174-574: The immigrants migrated to Barre , where many worked as stonecutters of granite , for which there was a national market. Vermont granite was used in major public buildings throughout the United States. In this period, many Italian and Scottish women operated boarding houses to support their families. Such facilities helped absorb new residents and taught them the new culture; European immigrants peaked in number between 1890 and 1900. Typically immigrants boarded with people of their own language and ethnicity, but sometimes they boarded with others. Gradually,

3243-519: The judgment of the king, and refrain from making more grants in the claimed territory until it was rendered, but in November 1753, New York reported that he continued to grant land in the disputed area. Grants briefly ceased in 1754, because of the French and Indian War , but in 1755 and 1757, Wentworth had a survey made 60 miles (97 km) up the Connecticut River, and 108 grants were made, extending to

3312-543: The land and to cultivate and develop it. New York appealed to the Board of Trade , requesting a confirmation of their original grant, which finally resolved the border dispute between New York and New Hampshire in favor of New York. The royal order of July 26, 1764, affirmed that "the Western bank of the Connecticut, from where it enters the province of Massachusetts Bay as far north as the 45th degree of northern latitude, to be

3381-566: The line 20 miles (32 km) east of the Hudson, and north to the eastern shore of Lake Champlain . The grants were usually six miles square (the standard size of a U.S. survey township , i.e. 23,040 acres or 93 km) and cost the grantee(s) 20 pounds . The grants were then subdivided amongst the proprietors, and six of the lots were set aside—one for the Society for the Propagation of

3450-633: The main British army surrendered at Yorktown , and it was clear that the United States would achieve independence. Following the Revolutionary War , Vermont was excluded (primarily due to objections from New York) from the loose confederation established among the 13 former colonies . The state remained outside until 1791. In 1790 New York finally consented to Vermont's admission to the Union . New York ceded its New Hampshire Grants claim to Vermont for 30,000 dollars . A convention

3519-610: The name "Vermont". This was on the advice of Thomas Young , a mentor of Ethan Allen. He advised them on how to achieve admission into the newly independent United States of America as the 14th state. On July 4, they completed the drafting of the first Constitution of Vermont (in effect from 1777 to 1786) at the Windsor Tavern , and adopted it on July 8. This was the first written constitution in North America to ban adult slavery , stating that male slaves become free at

SECTION 50

#1732772173380

3588-514: The need for local self-governance independent from New York. The Manchester meeting created a "civil and political Body" to regulate their community. Two months later, another convention meeting at Westminster renounced the authority of New York's government. On March 13, 1775, two men were killed in Westminster by officers from New York. News of the first clash between American militia and British troops at Lexington and Concord interrupted

3657-550: The neighboring Province of New Hampshire was fixed by royal decree in 1741 at a line 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Pawtucket Falls , where the Merrimack River turns north. This decision eliminated claims by Massachusetts to the north of that line. The territory between the Connecticut River and Lake Champlain , however, was also claimed by the Province of New York , the claims of which extended eastward to Connecticut. Also in 1741, New Hampshire native Benning Wentworth

3726-414: The new immigrants assimilated into the state. Times of tension aroused divisions. In the early 20th century, some Vermonters were alarmed about the decline of rural areas; people left farming to move to cities and others seemed unable to fit within society. In addition, there was a wave of immigration by French Canadians, and Protestant Anglo-Americans feared being overtaken by the new immigrants, who added to

3795-506: The precise boundary between the two states. When commissioners from New York and Vermont met to decide on the boundary, Vermont's negotiators insisted on also settling the property ownership disputes with New Yorkers, rather than leaving that decision to a federal court. The negotiations were successfully concluded in October 1790 with an agreement that Vermont would pay $ 30,000 to New York to be distributed among New Yorkers who claimed land in Vermont under New York land patents. In January 1791,

3864-532: The present boundaries of Vermont . Although the Continental forces suffered defeat, the British forces were damaged to the point that they did not pursue the Americans (retreating from Fort Ticonderoga) any further. Vermont continued to govern itself as a sovereign entity based in the eastern town of Windsor for 14 years. The independent state of Vermont issued its own coinage from 1785 to 1788 and operated

3933-432: The region. This infuriated residents, including Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys , who rose up to resist those efforts. While the resistance faded, so did New York's desire to assert its claim on the land around the Upper Connecticut, as a more pressing issue— revolution —moved to center stage. In January 1775 Committees of Safety from over twenty towns in the New Hampshire Grants area met in Manchester to discuss

4002-424: The remainder of the 6,000-man force at Saratoga, New York , on October 17 of that year. The battles of Bennington and Saratoga together are recognized as the turning point in the Revolutionary War because they were the first major defeat of a British army. The anniversary of the battle is celebrated in Vermont as a legal holiday. The Battle of Hubbardton (July 7, 1777) was the only Revolutionary battle within

4071-561: The same area. However, in contrast to the New Hampshire grants, the New York patents were generally irregularly shaped and issued to wealthy landowners. The New Hampshire grants were "town-sized," and generally settled by middle-class farmers. Most of the New York boundaries were ignored in favor of the New Hampshire boundaries and designations once Vermont achieved statehood, and some of these New York patents are now referred to as paper towns because they existed only on paper. In September 1762, New York found New Hampshire surveyors working on

4140-519: The same land as land patents . In 1764, King George III proclaimed the territory to be under the jurisdiction of New York, which meant that the New Hampshire Grant landowners did not have legal title. Meanwhile, New York continued selling large tracts of land, many of which overlapped with those already inhabited. The dispute led to Ethan Allen forming the Green Mountain Boys , an illicit militia that attacked New York settlers and speculators through arson and mob violence. They eventually repelled

4209-424: The smallest in area of all landlocked states. The Green Mountains in Vermont form a north–south spine running most of the length of the state, slightly west of its center. In the southwest portion of the state are located the Taconic Mountains . In the northwest, near Lake Champlain , is the fertile Champlain Valley . In the south of the valley is Lake Bomoseen . The west bank of the Connecticut River marks

SECTION 60

#1732772173380

4278-426: The state's eastern border with New Hampshire, though much of the river flows within New Hampshire. 41% of Vermont's land area is part of the Connecticut River's watershed. Lake Champlain , the sixth-largest body of fresh water in the United States, separates Vermont from New York in the northwest portion of the state. From north to south, Vermont is 159 miles (256 km) long. Its greatest width, from east to west,

4347-405: The territory as part of New France . Conflict arose when the Kingdom of Great Britain began to settle colonies to the south along the Atlantic coast; France was defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years' War , ceding its territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain. Thereafter, the nearby British Thirteen Colonies disputed the extent of the area called the New Hampshire Grants to the west of

4416-409: Was appointed the first governor of New Hampshire of the 18th century who was not also a governor of Massachusetts. Wentworth chose to read New Hampshire's territorial claims broadly. He construed the decree setting the New Hampshire-Massachusetts border to mean that New Hampshire's jurisdiction extended as far west as the jurisdiction of Massachusetts extended. Since the Massachusetts boundary extended to

4485-560: Was held from January 6 through 10, 1791 at Bennington to consider joining the federal Union . The convention voted 105–2 in favor of seeking admission. Congress gave unanimous approval to Vermont statehood the following month, and on March 4, 1791, the New Hampshire Grants, as Vermont, became the 14th state, the first admitted to the Union after adoption of the federal Constitution . 44°00′N 72°42′W  /  44°N 72.7°W  / 44; -72.7 Vermont Vermont ( / v ər ˈ m ɒ n t / )

4554-438: Was needed for settlement. The territory west of the Connecticut River was the last unsettled part of New England, and both the Province of New Hampshire and the Province of New York laid claim to it. In 1749, New Hampshire governor Benning Wentworth began to auction land in an uncolonized area between Lake Champlain and the Connecticut River . This area became known as the New Hampshire Grants . This westward expansion

4623-402: Was no basis for such a structure. Major changes in political apportionment took place in Vermont and other affected states. In the 21st century, Vermont increasingly became defined by its progressivism. It was the first state to introduce civil unions in 2000 and the first state to legalize same-sex marriage in 2009, unforced by court challenge or ruling. On January 22, 2018, Vermont became

4692-406: Was started to increase New Hampshire's tax base and claim the timber there, White Pine in particular. There were eventually 135 New Hampshire Grants . The first of Benning Wentworth's grants included a town named after himself: Bennington . A typical town, it was 6 square miles (16 km ), contained 48 lots, with land set aside for a school, a church, and a town center. Five hundred acres of

4761-557: Was the 29th state to pass a eugenics law. Vermont, like other states, sterilized some patients in institutions and persons it had identified through surveys as degenerate or unfit. It nominally had permission from the patients or their guardians, but abuses were documented. Two-thirds of the sterilizations were done on women, and poor, unwed mothers were targeted, among others. There is disagreement about how many sterilizations were performed; most were completed between 1931 and 1941, but such procedures were recorded as late as 1970. In 1964,

#379620