121-719: The New Hampshire State Navy during the American Revolutionary War consisted of a single ship commissioned by the state of New Hampshire in 1779. The Hampden , a privateer owned by John Langdon , was purchased and outfitted by the state in August 1779 for use in what became known as the Penobscot Expedition . The Hampden was captured by the British Royal Navy , which eventually put it into service. The state also authorized
242-853: A Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. In 1779, the Sullivan Expedition undertook a scorched earth campaign against the Iroquois who were largely allied with the British. Indian raids on the American frontier, however, continued to be a problem. Also, in 1779, Spain allied with France against Great Britain in the Treaty of Aranjuez , though Spain did not formally ally with the Americans. Howe's replacement Henry Clinton intended to take
363-706: A successful siege , Washington's forces drove the British Army out of Boston in March 1776, and British commander in chief William Howe responded by launching the New York and New Jersey campaign . Howe captured New York City in November. Washington responded by clandestinely crossing the Delaware River and winning small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton . In the summer of 1777, as Howe
484-564: A bounty to be paid immediately from Congressional coffers in Philadelphia did a significant number of men agree to stay with the army another six weeks. Washington then adopted a fortified position just south of the Assunpink Creek, across the creek from Trenton. In this position, he beat back one assault on January 2, 1777, which he followed up with a decisive victory at Princeton the next day, although General Hugh Mercer
605-546: A brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the full-scale Battles of Lexington and Concord. British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston , which was then besieged by the militia. In May 1775, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe , John Burgoyne , and Sir Henry Clinton . On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill ,
726-549: A celebrated location and development in the ultimately victorious Revolutionary War, the unincorporated communities of Washington Crossing, Pennsylvania and Washington Crossing, New Jersey are both presently named in honor of Washington and the logistically complicated covert crossing of Delaware River. Although 1776 started well for Washington and the Continental Army with the evacuation of British troops from Boston in March, attempts to defend New York City from
847-747: A customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair , then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company , which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act , giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies . Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose
968-546: A frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Gage appealed to London for a larger army, but instead was replaced as commander by Howe. On June 14, 1775, Congress took control of Patriot forces outside Boston, and Congressional leader John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief of the newly formed Continental Army . On June 16, Hancock officially proclaimed him "General and Commander in Chief of
1089-429: A heavy toll on Washington and the Continental Army. When they evacuated their forts, they were forced to leave behind critical supplies and munitions. Many troops were killed or taken prisoner, and the morale of the remaining troops suffered even further. Few believed that Washington and the Continental Army could win the war and gain independence. On December 19, 1776, just a week prior to Washington's covert crossing of
1210-602: A large number of Durham boats were used to transport soldiers across the river. These boats were designed to carry heavy loads from the Durham Iron Works, featured high sides and a shallow draft, and could be poled across the river. The boats were operated by experienced watermen, including John Glover 's Marblehead Regiment , a company of experienced seamen from Marblehead, Massachusetts . These men were joined by seamen, dockworkers, and shipbuilders from Philadelphia and local ferry operators and boatsmen who knew
1331-455: A logistically challenging and dangerous operation. Meanwhile, the Hessians were involved in numerous clashes with small bands of Patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual Battle of Trenton . By Christmas they were tired, while a heavy snowstorm led their commander, Colonel Johann Rall , to assume no significant attack would occur. At daybreak on
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#17327833546591452-461: A military operation. Preparations for the attack began immediately, on December 23. The following day, on December 24, boats were used to begin bringing the Continental Army across the Delaware from New Jersey were brought down from Malta Island near present-day New Hope, Pennsylvania . The boats were hidden behind Taylor Island at McConkey's Ferry, Washington's planned crossing site, and security
1573-550: A parallel route that lay a few miles inland from the Delaware River . Meanwhile, the Hessians were held up at Trenton. In the days approaching Christmas , they experienced numerous skirmishes around Trenton, and were subjected to frequent gunfire at night, along with repeated false alarms. By Christmas Eve, the Hessians were tired and weary. As a storm and heavy snowfall began Christmas night, Colonel Rall assumed there would be no attack of any consequence to worry about. While Rall
1694-580: A rearguard. Howe met with a delegation from the Second Continental Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference , but it failed to conclude peace, largely because the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged
1815-828: A riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop Liberty on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre . The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry , which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax
1936-591: A second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter. On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge ; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga, foreign observers such as Frederick
2057-480: A struggle with Britain, but also split between American Patriots and American Loyalists. Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists, and those who were indifferent. Others calculate
2178-419: A third crossing for December 29. On December 28 it snowed, but the weather cleared that night, although its remained bitter cold. As this effort involved most of the army, eight crossing points were used. At some of crossing points, the ice had frozen two to three inches (4 to 7 cm) thick and was capable of supporting soldiers, who crossed the ice on foot. At other crossings, the conditions were so bad that
2299-671: A threat to liberty in general. This led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, in the British Parliament, and in the London press. Throughout the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their governors. Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these assemblies now established ad-hoc provincial legislatures, variously called congresses, conventions, and conferences, effectively replacing royal control. With
2420-401: Is also one of the first times that the colonies were referred to as "United States", rather than the more common United Colonies . On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4. At this point, the revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war, since each state represented in Congress was engaged in
2541-658: Is located in the Mill Hill neighborhood of Trenton. He is shown standing on a boat, symbolically representing the crossing. An image of Washington Crossing the Delaware has also appeared on the 1999 New Jersey State Quarter and on the reverse of the 2021 Quarter. In 1970, the Vietnam Veterans Against the War invoked the crossing when they marched from Morristown to Valley Forge , performing guerilla theatre , holding press conferences, and passing out flyers in
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#17327833546592662-695: The Appalachian Mountains also avoided the cost of an expensive military occupation. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was designed to achieve these aims by refocusing colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia and south into Florida , with the Mississippi River as the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in America. Settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits, and claims west of this line, including by Virginia and Massachusetts , were rescinded despite
2783-417: The Battle of Brandywine on September 11, then allowing him to withdraw in good order. After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown . Washington attacked them on October 4, but was repulsed. To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea,
2904-654: The Battle of Iron Works Hill the next day, drawing the Hessians at Bordentown far enough south that they would be unable to come to the assistance of the Trenton garrison. The intelligence gathered by Reed and others led Washington to abandon the idea of attacking at Mount Holly, and he began focusing instead on targeting the Hessian garrison in Trenton. On December 23, Washington announced to his staff that he had decided to attack Trenton just prior to sunrise on December 26. Washington told Reed that "dire necessity" justified
3025-511: The Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776, but it failed. A shortage of gunpowder led Congress to authorize a naval expedition against the Bahamas to secure ordnance stored there. On March 3, 1776, an American squadron under the command of Esek Hopkins landed at the east end of Nassau and encountered minimal resistance at Fort Montagu . Hopkins' troops then marched on Fort Nassau . Hopkins had promised governor Montfort Browne and
3146-643: The British . Washington and his troops successfully attacked the Hessian forces in the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26, 1776. The military campaign was organized in great secrecy by Washington, who led a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania across the icy Delaware River to today's Mercer County, New Jersey in what was one of the Revolutionary War's most logistically challenging and dangerous clandestine operations. Other planned crossings in support of
3267-994: The British Army . The conflict was fought in North America , the Caribbean , and the Atlantic Ocean . The war ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783) , which resulted in Great Britain ultimately recognizing the independence and sovereignty of the United States. After the British Empire gained dominance in North America with victory over the French in the Seven Years' War in 1763, tensions and disputes arose between Great Britain and
3388-642: The British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries . The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord , which began the Revolutionary War. After
3509-852: The Burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776. The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign . Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert British rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge . A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in
3630-584: The Continental Association ; based on a draft prepared by the First Virginia Convention in August, the association instituted economic sanctions and a full boycott of goods against Britain. While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by
3751-869: The Great Lakes , and north of the Floridas to the United States . [REDACTED] Great Britain Combatants The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence , was an armed conflict that was part of the broader American Revolution , in which American Patriot forces organized as the Continental Army and commanded by George Washington defeated
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3872-641: The Iroquois for their support, while US envoys urged them to remain neutral. Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775. After the defeat at the Battle of Quebec on December 31, the Americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on May 6, 1776. A second defeat at Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec. British pursuit
3993-660: The Pennsylvania Navy . Captain Daniel Bray , along with Captain Jacob Gearhart and Captain Jacob Ten Eyck, were chosen by Washington to take charge of the boats used in the crossing, supervising the transport of infantry, cavalry, and cannon. In addition to the large ferry vessels, which were big enough to carry large coaches, and likely served for carrying horses and artillery during the crossing,
4114-729: The Second Continental Congress appointed the Committee of Five : Thomas Jefferson , John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman , and Robert Livingston . The declaration was written almost exclusively by Jefferson. Identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as "one people", the declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III . This
4235-586: The Second Continental Congress formalized Patriot militias into the Continental Army and appointed Washington its commander-in-chief. The British Parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion in August 1775. The stakes of the war were formalized with passage of the Lee Resolution by the Congress in Philadelphia on July 2, 1776, and the unanimous ratification of the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4, 1776. After
4356-544: The Seven Years' War , ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris , which expelled France from their possessions in New France . Acquisition of territories in Atlantic Canada and West Florida , inhabited largely by French and Spanish-speaking Catholics , led British authorities to consolidate their hold by populating them with English-speaking settlers. Preventing conflict between settlers and Indian tribes west of
4477-767: The Sugar Act and Stamp Act , which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry , which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act . However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768,
4598-544: The Thirteen Colonies of the challenging conditions confronting the Continental Army but arguing that victory was possible and necessary. On December 20, General Lee's division of 2,000 troops arrived in Washington's camp under the command of General John Sullivan . Lee was captured by the British on December 12, when he ventured too far outside the protection of his troops in search of more comfortable lodgings. Later that day, Gates' division arrived in camp, which by then included only 600 Continental Army forces following
4719-399: The Thirteen Colonies over a variety of issues, including the Stamp and Townshend Acts . The resulting British military occupation led to the Boston Massacre in 1770. Among further tensions, the British Parliament imposed the Intolerable Acts in mid-1774. A British attempt to disarm the Americans and the resulting Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 ignited the war. In June,
4840-471: The Washington Crossing Bridge . In 1851, the artist Emmanuel Leutze painted Washington Crossing the Delaware , an idealized and inspirational portrait of the crossing. Fictional portrayals in film of the crossing have also been made, with perhaps the most notable recent one being The Crossing , a 2000 television movie starring Jeff Daniels as George Washington. A marble statue of George Washington, sculpted by Mahlon Dickerson Eyre around 1876,
4961-520: The colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them. Many settlers resented the restrictions entirely, and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier, which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them. Although directly administered by the Crown , acting through a local governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by London, colonial militia were funded locally but with
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5082-445: The 26th, the American Patriots surprised and overwhelmed Rall and his troops, who lost over 20 killed including Rall, while 900 prisoners, German cannons and supplies were captured. The Battle of Trenton restored the American army's morale, reinvigorated the Patriot cause, and dispelled their fear of what they regarded as Hessian "mercenaries". A British attempt to retake Trenton was repulsed at Assunpink Creek on January 2; during
5203-402: The American cause. The reduced Continental Army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, and morale declined. On December 20, 1776, the Continental Congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore , where it remained until February 27, 1777. Loyalist activity surged in
5324-526: The Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day. On October 18, Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point , and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains , and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value. Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with
5445-422: The British flank near Morristown . Other problems hampered Washington's forces. Many of his troop's enlistments were due to expire at the end of 1776, then only a week away, and many of them were inclined to leave the Continental Army when their commission ended. Several Continental Army troops deserted prior to expiration of their enlistment commitment. The pending loss of forces, the series of lost battles,
5566-543: The British were unsuccessful. British General William Howe and his troops landed on Long Island in August and pushed Washington's Continental Army completely out of New York by mid-November, when he captured the remaining troops on Manhattan . The main force of British troops returned to New York for the winter season, and they left their allied Hessian troops in New Jersey under the command of Colonels Rall and Von Donop. Both colonels were ordered to form small outposts in and around Trenton . Howe then sent troops under
5687-407: The Canadians. In Virginia, Dunmore's Proclamation on November 7, 1775, promised freedom to any slaves who fled their Patriot masters and agreed to fight for the Crown. British forces were defeated at Great Bridge on December 9 and took refuge on British ships anchored near Norfolk. When the Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law, Lord Dunmore ordered
5808-584: The Colonial Secretary Lord Germain , proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at Albany , leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. Reasonable in principle, this did not account for
5929-541: The Culper Spy Ring substantially increased the effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Throughout the war, Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on military intelligence . Washington split the Continental Army into positions on Manhattan and across the East River in western Long Island. On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights , but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through
6050-474: The Delaware River well, including Kirby Francis Kane from Rhode Island. On the morning of December 25, Washington ordered his Continental Army troops to prepare three days' food and issued orders that every soldier be outfitted with fresh flints for their muskets. Washington was somewhat worried by intelligence reports that the British were planning their own crossing once the Delaware was frozen over. At 4 pm on December 25, Washington's army arrived to begin
6171-430: The Delaware River, the morale of the Continental Army was lifted by the publication of The American Crisis , a pamphlet authored by Thomas Paine , the author of Common Sense . In The American Crisis , Paine wrote the famed phrase: These are the times that try men's souls; the summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now, deserves
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#17327833546596292-432: The Delaware River. This left Washington with about 2,400 men able to take offensive action against the Hessian and British troops in and around Trenton. The Continental Army's morale was boosted further by the arrival of some provisions, including much-needed blankets, on December 24. Washington was considering some form of bold maneuver since arriving in Pennsylvania. With the arrival of Sullivan's and Gates' forces and
6413-605: The Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination. Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to "model companies" in each Continental Army regiment, who then instructed their home units. Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended
6534-399: The North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with
6655-411: The Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition , offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. However, since the petition was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms , Colonial Secretary Lord Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere and refused to present
6776-434: The Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy , commanded by John Hazelwood . An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed;
6897-477: The Thirteen Colonies—the Northern Theater and the Southern Theater —and a smaller but strategically important third one west of the Appalachian Mountains . On April 14, 1775, Sir Thomas Gage , Commander-in-Chief, North America and Governor of Massachusetts , received orders to take action against the Patriots. He decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord, Massachusetts , and capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams , who were considered
7018-415: The United States John Marshall , Alexander Hamilton , the first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury , Arthur St. Clair , who later served as President of the Continental Congress and Governor of the Northwest Territory , and John Gano , a brigade chaplain and friend of George Washington , who later served as the first chaplain in the Kentucky state legislature . Both sides of the Delaware River where
7139-400: The Whigs, Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would drive the Americans towards independence. However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both Lord North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved
7260-634: The area of food. This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix ; despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around
7381-475: The army of the United Colonies." He assumed command on July 3, preferring to fortify Dorchester Heights outside Boston rather than assaulting it. In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga . Under cover of darkness, on March 5, Washington placed these on Dorchester Heights, from where they could fire on the town and British ships in Boston Harbor. Fearing another Bunker Hill, Howe evacuated
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#17327833546597502-433: The attempts were abandoned for the day. It was New Year's Eve before the army and all of its baggage was back in New Jersey. This was somewhat fortunate, as the enlistment period of John Glover's regiment, along with a significant number of others, was expiring at the end of the year, and many of these men, including most of Glover's, wanted to go home, where a lucrative privateering trade awaited them. Only by offering
7623-504: The base for American naval operations. After regrouping at Halifax in Nova Scotia, Howe set sail for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30; Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12, 1776, Patriot Thomas Knowlton
7744-433: The battle. Washington's army then crossed the Delaware River a third time at the end of 1776 under difficult circumstances by the uncertain thickness of the ice on the river. They defeated British reinforcements under Lord Cornwallis at Trenton on January 2, 1777, and were also triumphant over his rear guard at Princeton the following day prior to retreating to his winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey . As
7865-408: The battle. Only three Americans were killed and six wounded, while 22 Hessians were killed, with 98 wounded. During the battle Colonel Rall was mortally wounded, and died the next day. The Americans captured nearly 1,000 prisoners, and seized muskets, gunpowder, artillery pieces, and drums . Following the battle, Washington had to execute a second crossing that was in some ways more difficult than
7986-562: The camp to a "squalid hell" and supplies were dangerously low. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel , surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England. After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24. He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent, defeating Washington at
8107-418: The city on March 17 without further loss and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia , while Washington moved south to New York City. Beginning in August 1775, American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia, including Saint John , Charlottetown , and Yarmouth . In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Canso and Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Quebec began negotiating with
8228-430: The civilian inhabitants that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance; they complied. Hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home, when he departed on March 17. A month later, after a brief skirmish with HMS Glasgow , they returned to New London, Connecticut ,
8349-405: The colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense , which was published on January 10, 1776, and argued for American self-government and was widely reprinted. To draft the Declaration of Independence ,
8470-410: The colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans found objectionable. In April 1772, colonialists staged the first American tax revolt in Weare , New Hampshire against the British royal authority later referred to as the Pine Tree Riot . This occurrence would later inspire the design of the Pine Tree Flag . Tensions escalated following the destruction of
8591-429: The command of Charles Cornwallis across the Hudson River , where they chased Washington and his troops across New Jersey . Washington's army was shrinking because of expiring enlistments and desertions. The remaining troops were suffering from poor morale because of the defeats in the New York area. Most of Washington's army crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania north of Trenton , and destroyed or moved to
8712-603: The committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications, and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. Paine served as secretary, while Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane , sent to France to recruit military engineers, were instrumental in securing French aid in Paris. The Revolutionary War included two principal campaign theaters within
8833-470: The crossing and attack. Horatio Gates was in the Hudson River Valley . Charles Lee was in western New Jersey, where he had 2,000 Continental Army troops under his command. Washington ordered both generals to join him, but Gates was delayed by heavy snows in transit to McConkey's Ferry, and Lee, who did not have a high opinion of Washington, delayed following repeated orders, and remained on
8954-426: The crossing of the river. The troops were issued ammunition, and even the officers and musicians were ordered to carry muskets. They were told that they were departing on a secret mission. Marching eight abreast in close formations and ordered to be as quiet as possible, they left the camp for McConkey's Ferry. Washington's plan required the crossing to begin as soon as it was dark enough to conceal their movements on
9075-647: The crossing took place have been preserved, in an area designated as the Washington's Crossing National Historic Landmark . In this district, Washington Crossing Historic Park in Washington Crossing, Pennsylvania , preserves the area in Pennsylvania , and Washington Crossing State Park in Washington Crossing, New Jersey preserves the area in New Jersey . The two areas are connected by
9196-416: The end of many enlistments, to secure the northern frontier. Soon after, another 1,000 Continental Army troops arrived from Philadelphia under Colonel John Cadwalader 's command to support Washington and the existing troops he then was commanding. With these reinforcements and a smaller number of local volunteers who joined his forces, Washington's forces totaled about 6,000 troops fit for duty. This total
9317-484: The ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge debt incurred by the Seven Years' War and demands from British taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The new taxes levied on subjects in the colonies proved highly burdensome in colonies such as North Carolina , particularly for
9438-716: The exception of Georgia , twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed
9559-519: The exception of a minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until March, Howe made no attempt to attack the Americans. The 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy to isolating the north by taking control of the Hudson River , allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. In December 1776, Howe wrote to
9680-562: The face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. On the night of December 25–26, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River , leading a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania , to today's Mercer County, New Jersey , in
9801-604: The fact that each colony argued that their boundaries extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean . The vast exchange of territory ultimately destabilized existing alliances and trade networks between settlers and Indians in the west, while it proved impossible to prevent encroachment beyond the Proclamation Line. With the exception of Virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands,
9922-490: The first of the troops to cross, going with Virginia troops led by General Adam Stephen . These troops formed a sentry line around the landing area in New Jersey, with strict instructions that no one was to pass through. The password was "Victory or Death". The rest of the army crossed without significant incident, although a few men, including Delaware's Colonel John Haslet , fell into the water. The amount of ice on
10043-431: The first. In the aftermath of the battle, the Hessian supplies had been plundered, and, in spite of Washington's explicit orders for its destruction, casks of captured rum were opened, so some of the celebrating troops got drunk, probably contributing to the larger number of troops that had to be pulled from the icy Delaware River waters on the return crossing. They also had to transport the large numbers of prisoners across
10164-586: The influx of militia companies, he felt the time was finally right for some sort of action. Washington first considered an attack on the southernmost British positions near Mount Holly , where a Continental Army militia force had gathered. He sent his adjutant Joseph Reed to meet with Samuel Griffin , the militia's commander. Reed arrived in Mount Holly on December 22, and found Griffin to be ill and his men in relatively poor condition, but willing to undertake some form of military diversion. They did this at
10285-423: The issuance of letters of marque and created an admiralty court to deal with marine matters, including the disposition of prizes brought in by privateers. This New Hampshire -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . American Revolutionary War American and allied victory Great Britain cedes generally, all mainland territories east of the Mississippi River , south of
10406-475: The logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, with a mixed force of British regulars, professional German soldiers and Canadian militia, and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped
10527-503: The loss of 3,000 prisoners. The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. General Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture Newport, Rhode Island , to secure the Loyalist port. General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt. The outlook following the defeat at Fort Washington appeared bleak for
10648-590: The loss of New York, and the resulting flight of the Continental Army and many New Yorkers from the British, led some in the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia to begin doubting the war's direction under Washington's leadership. But Washington persisted, successfully procuring supplies and dispatching men to recruit new members for the Continental Army, which was successful partly because of British and Hessian soldiers' drunken behavior while in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The losses at Fort Lee placed
10769-452: The love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. The day following its publication in Philadelphia , Washington ordered all his troops to read it. In The American Crisis , Paine encouraged the soldiers to look more optimistically at their prospects for victory. The pamphlet also enhanced public understanding across
10890-473: The night of August 28, Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin 's regiments as
11011-440: The night, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis, then defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. After his success at Princeton, Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey , where he remained until May and received Congressional direction to inoculate all Patriot troops against smallpox . With
11132-457: The operation were either called off or ineffective, but this did not prevent Washington from surprising and defeating the Hessian troops encamped in Trenton under the command of Johann Rall . After prevailing in the Battle of Trenton, Washington and his Continental Army troops crossed the Delaware River again, returning to Pennsylvania west-bound with Hessian prisoners and military stores taken in
11253-491: The petition to the king. Although constitutionally correct, since George could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress. Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion , issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill , it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. Backed by
11374-507: The poorer classes, and quickly became a source of much discontent. The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act ; routinely ignored before 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by
11495-574: The principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to begin around midnight on April 19, in the hope of completing it before the American Patriots could respond. However, Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain Parker , commander of the Concord militia, who prepared to resist. The first action of the war, commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world , was
11616-644: The principle of taxation by Parliament. In December 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk natives dumped 342 crates of tea into the Boston Harbor , an event later known as the Boston Tea Party . The British Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts , aimed specifically at Massachusetts, although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them
11737-469: The recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops . Within a year, it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. The employment of German soldiers against people viewed as British citizens was opposed by many in Parliament and by
11858-398: The risky assault, which included the logistically complicated task of crossing the Delaware River. Washington's final plan included plans for three crossings of the river, with his troops, the largest contingent, to lead the attack on Trenton. A second column under Cadwalader was to cross at Dunk's Ferry and create a diversion to the south. A third column under Brigadier General James Ewing
11979-556: The river he recalled his men from New Jersey. When he received word about Washington's victory, he crossed his men over again but retreated when he found out that Washington had not stayed in New Jersey. On the morning of December 26, as soon as the Continental Army was ready, Washington ordered it split into two columns, one Washington personally commanded with General Greene, and a second led by General Sullivan. The Sullivan column would take River Road from Bear Tavern to Trenton while Washington's column would follow Pennington Road ,
12100-438: The river prevented the artillery from finishing the crossing until 3 am on December 26. The troops were ready to march around 4 am. The two other crossings fared less well. The treacherous weather and ice jams on the river stopped General Ewing from even attempting a crossing below Trenton. Colonel Cadwalader crossed a significant portion of his men to New Jersey, but when he found that he could not get his artillery across
12221-409: The river while keeping them under guard. One American acting as a guard on one of the crossings observed that the Hessians, who were standing in knee-deep ice water, were "so cold that their underjaws quivered like an aspen leaf." The victory had a marked effect on the troops' morale. Soldiers celebrated the victory, Washington's role as a leader was secured, and Congress gained renewed enthusiasm for
12342-537: The river, but most of the troops did not reach the crossing point until about 6 pm, about ninety minutes after sunset. As the evening progressed, the weather became progressively worse, turning from drizzle to rain and then to sleet and snow. "It blew a hurricane," one soldier recalled. Washington had given charge of the crossing to his chief of artillery, Henry Knox . In addition to the crossing of large numbers of troops (most of whom could not swim), he had to safely transport horses and eighteen pieces of artillery over
12463-470: The river. Knox wrote that the crossing was accomplished "with almost infinite difficulty", and that its most significant danger was floating ice in the river. One observer noted that the whole operation might well have failed "but for the stentorian lungs of Colonel Knox". The unusually cold weather of the 1770s and the icy river were likely related to the Little Ice Age . Washington was among
12584-557: The sovereignty and independence of the United States, bringing the American Revolutionary War to an end. The Treaties of Versailles resolved Great Britain's conflicts with France and Spain and forced Great Britain to cede Tobago , Senegal , and small territories in India to France, and Menorca , West Florida and East Florida to Spain. The French and Indian War, part of the wider global conflict known as
12705-475: The split as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations. At the onset of the war, the Second Continental Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776,
12826-495: The town. Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights , forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced
12947-428: The wake of the American defeat, especially in New York state . In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak. Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in
13068-737: The war against the Americans into the Southern Colonies . Despite some initial success, British general Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown in September and October 1781. Cornwallis was forced to surrender in October. The British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, but fighting largely ceased in North America. In the Treaty of Paris, ratified on September 3, 1783, Great Britain acknowledged
13189-582: The war. George Washington%27s crossing of the Delaware River George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River , which occurred on the night of December 25–26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War , was the first move in a complex and surprise military maneuver organized by George Washington , the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army , which culminated in their attack on Hessian forces garrisoned at Trenton . The Hessians were German mercenaries hired by
13310-415: The war. In a war council on December 27, Washington learned that all of the British and Hessian forces had withdrawn as far north as Princeton, something Cadwalader had learned when his militia company crossed the river that morning. In his letter, Cadwalader proposed that the British could be driven entirely from the area, magnifying the victory. After much debate, the council decided on action and planned
13431-446: The western shore all boats for miles in both directions. Rather than attempting to immediately chase Washington further, Cornwallis, under Howe's orders, established a chain of New Jersey outposts from New Brunswick to Burlington , including one at Bordentown and one at Trenton, and ordered his troops to bunker there in winter quarters. The British were happy to end the campaign season when they were ordered to winter quarters. This
13552-450: Was a time for the generals to regroup, resupply, and strategize for the upcoming campaign season the following spring. Washington encamped his Continental Army near McConkey's Ferry in present-day Upper Makefield Township , not far from the crossing site. Washington at first took quarters across the river from Trenton, but on December 15 he moved his headquarters to the home of William Keith in present-day Upper Makefield Township so he
13673-431: Was closer to his forces. When Washington's army first arrived at McConkey's Ferry, the Continental Army had between 4,000 and 6,000 men, but approximately 1,700 were unfit for duty and needed hospital care. In the retreat across New Jersey, Washington lost precious supplies and also lost contact with two important divisions of the Continental Army. Two of Washington's top generals were potentially poised to aid Washington in
13794-514: Was in Trenton, he and some of his top officers spent Christmas evening at the home of Abraham Hunt , Trenton's postmaster, where Hunt played the role of a Loyalist and placated Rall and his officers with food and plenty of drink into the late hours of the evening and morning, which, by many accounts, compromised Rall's ability to respond to Washington's surprise attack at daybreak. Washington attacked an unsuspecting Rall and his troops and in little time had scattered and divided them and ultimately won
13915-650: Was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Valcour Island on October 11 forced the Americans to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga , while in December an uprising in Nova Scotia sponsored by Massachusetts was defeated at Fort Cumberland . These failures impacted public support for the Patriot cause, and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated
14036-480: Was killed in the battle. In the following days, the British withdrew to New Brunswick, and the Continental Army entered winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey . At the time of the crossing, Washington's army included a significant number of people who played important roles in the formation of what ultimately became the United States , including future U.S. president James Monroe , future Chief Justice of
14157-522: Was ordered to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers , which included Nathan Hale , became the Army's first intelligence unit. When Washington was driven off Long Island , he soon realized that he would need to professionalize military intelligence. With aid from Benjamin Tallmadge , Washington launched the six-man Culper spy ring . The efforts of Washington and
14278-483: Was poised to capture Philadelphia , the Continental Congress fled to Baltimore . In October 1777, a separate northern British force under the command of John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga in an American victory that proved crucial in convincing France and Spain that an independent United States was a viable possibility. France signed a commercial agreement with the rebels, followed by
14399-467: Was then reduced by a large portion because some forces were detailed to guard the ferries at Dunk's Ferry, currently bordered by present-day Neshaminy State Park in Bensalem Township, Pennsylvania and New Hope, Pennsylvania . Another group was sent to protect supplies at Newtown, Pennsylvania , and to guard the sick and wounded who had to remain behind as the Continental Army began crossing
14520-478: Was tightened at and around the crossing. A final planning meeting took place that day, with all of the general officers present. Washington outlined the details plans for the crossing of the river and planned attacks on the Hessians in Trenton on December 25, 1776 A wide variety of watercraft were assembled for the crossing of the Delaware River , primarily through the work of militia men from surrounding counties in New Jersey and Pennsylvania with assistance from
14641-583: Was to cross at Trenton Ferry and hold the bridge across the Assunpink Creek , just south of Trenton, in order to prevent the enemy's escape by that route. Once Trenton was secure, the combined Continental Army would move against the British posts in Princeton and New Brunswick . A planned fourth crossing, by men provided by General Israel Putnam to assist Cadwalader, was aborted after Putnam indicated that he did not feel he had enough men fit for such
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