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109-554: Even though New Indies Style refers specifically to the Dutch Rationalism movement that appeared in 1910s Indonesia, for the purpose of covering the many architectural styles that appeared during the brief early modern period, the term is used as a general term for all the architectural styles that appear between the late 19th-century to pre- World War II 20th-century. The attempt to synthesize Dutch architecture with local Indonesian architecture had already started during

218-439: A 19th-century French movement, usually associated with the theorists Eugène Viollet-le-Duc and Auguste Choisy . Viollet-le-Duc rejected the concept of an ideal architecture and instead saw architecture as a rational construction approach defined by the materials and purpose of the structure. The architect Eugène Train was one of the most important practitioners of this school, particularly with his educational buildings such as

327-459: A carved central jamb. Narrow doors and small windows might be surmounted by a solid stone lintel. Larger openings are nearly always arched. A characteristic feature of Romanesque architecture, both ecclesiastic and domestic, is the pairing of two arched windows or arcade openings, separated by a pillar or colonette and often set within a larger arch. Ocular windows are common in Italy, particularly in

436-589: A common rule, living in a mutually dependent community, rather than as a group of hermits living in proximity but essentially separate, was established by the monk Benedict in the 6th century. The Benedictine monasteries spread from Italy throughout Europe, being always by far the most numerous in England. They were followed by the Cluniac order, the Cistercians , Carthusians and Augustinian Canons . During

545-582: A great number of antique Roman columns were salvaged and reused in the interiors and on the porticos of churches. The most durable of these columns are of marble and have the stone horizontally bedded. The majority are vertically bedded and are sometimes of a variety of colours. They may have retained their original Roman capitals, generally of the Corinthian or Roman Composite style. Some buildings, like Santa Maria in Cosmedin (illustrated above) and

654-509: A half-column supporting the arch. There are many variations on this theme, most notably at Durham Cathedral where the mouldings and shafts of the piers are of exceptional richness and the huge masonry columns are deeply incised with geometric patterns. Often the arrangement was made more complex by the complexity of the piers themselves, so that it was not piers and columns that alternated, but rather, piers of entirely different form from each other, such as those of Sant' Ambrogio, Milan , where

763-413: A horizontal moulding representing a capital at the springing of the arch. Sometimes piers have vertical shafts attached to them, and may also have horizontal mouldings at the level of the base. Although basically rectangular, piers can often be of highly complex form, with half-segments of large hollow-core columns on the inner surface supporting the arch, or a clustered group of smaller shafts leading into

872-621: A lack of living space within the walls, and resulted in a style of town house that was tall and narrow, often surrounding communal courtyards, as at San Gimignano in Tuscany and Bologna and Pavia in Lombardy . In Germany, the Holy Roman Emperors built a number of residences, fortified, but essentially palaces rather than castles, at strategic points and on trade routes. The Imperial Palace of Goslar (heavily restored in

981-643: A large number remain either substantially intact or sympathetically restored, demonstrating the form, character and decoration of Romanesque church architecture. Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire . With the decline of Rome, Roman building methods survived to an extent in Western Europe, where successive Merovingian , Carolingian and Ottonian architects continued to build large stone buildings such as monastery churches and palaces. In

1090-418: A monastic complex, with all its various monastic buildings and their functions labelled. The largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the square plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at

1199-524: A result of this policy. One of the few remaining architects who chose Indonesian citizenship was Han Groenewegen , who assisted Silaban in the design of Bank Indonesia in Thamrin Road , Jakarta. Rationalism (architecture) In architecture , Rationalism ( Italian : razionalismo ) is an architectural current which mostly developed from Italy in the 1920s and 1930s . Vitruvius had claimed in his work De architectura that architecture

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1308-520: A single piece of stone were frequently used in Italy, as they had been in Roman and Early Christian architecture. They were also used, particularly in Germany, when they alternated between more massive piers. Arcades of columns cut from single pieces are also common in structures that do not bear massive weights of masonry, such as cloisters, where they are sometimes paired. In Italy, during this period,

1417-540: A stark contrast with the traditionalist Delft School . Delft School in the Netherlands is expressed as modern architecture with humble simple look inspired by the old houses of Dutch countryside. Delft School does not appear in Indonesia, however it can be defined as a 20th-century architecture style which conforms toward the traditional tropical consideration – Indies architecture ( Indische architectuur ). Despite

1526-499: A third stage of window openings known as the clerestory rising above them. Arcading on a large scale generally fulfils a structural purpose, but it is also used, generally on a smaller scale, as a decorative feature, both internally and externally where it is frequently " blind arcading " with only a wall or a narrow passage behind it. In Romanesque architecture, piers were often employed to support arches. They were built of masonry and square or rectangular in section, generally having

1635-518: A younger generation of German architects, including Hans Kollhoff , Max Dudler , and Christoph Mäckler . Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe that was predominant in the 11th and 12th centuries. The style eventually developed into the Gothic style with the shape of the arches providing a simple distinction: the Romanesque

1744-417: Is a direct imitation of Islamic architecture . At other late Romanesque churches such as Durham Cathedral , and Cefalù Cathedral , the pointed arch was introduced as a structural device in ribbed vaulting. Its increasing application was fundamental to the development of Gothic architecture . An arcade is a row of arches, supported on piers or columns. They occur in the interior of large churches, separating

1853-513: Is a science that can be comprehended rationally. The formulation was taken up and further developed in the architectural treatises of the Renaissance . Eighteenth-century progressive art theory opposed the Baroque use of illusionism with the classic beauty of truth and reason. Twentieth-century Rationalism derived less from a special, unified theoretical work than from a common belief that

1962-604: Is characterized by semicircular arches , while the Gothic is marked by the pointed arches . The Romanesque emerged nearly simultaneously in multiple countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain); its examples can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman architecture . Similarly to Gothic, the name of the style was transferred onto the contemporary Romanesque art . Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque architecture

2071-567: Is identical to that of a traditional Javanese Joglo : tall columns support a hipped, two-tiered roof, which facilitates cross ventilation of the roof cavity. Notable examples of this movement appear in Maclaine Pont's design for the ceremonial halls of the Technische Hoogeschool te Bandung (which became Institut Teknologi Bandung ). The building features an eclectic synthesis of various Indonesian local forms, including

2180-495: Is implemented not only in the ground level but also at the second floor. Double facade protects the facade from heavy rainfall and strong sunlight, an important feature of tropical design. Extensive openings in the form of multiple doors or high windows were done to allow cross ventilation to cool the interior. Several examples of building from this period are Citroen 's Lawang Sewu (1907), Moojen 's Kunstkring Art Gallery (1913) and Cirebon Kejaksan Station (1912). Art Deco in

2289-556: Is known by its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy pillars , barrel vaults , large towers and decorative arcading . Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan. The overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials. Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are

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2398-665: Is not a Style", won over a small but talented group of architects to the classical point of view. Organizations such as the Traditional Architecture Group at the RIBA , and the Institute of Classical Architecture attest to their growing number, but mask the Rationalist origins. In Germany, Oswald Mathias Ungers became the leading practitioner of German rationalism from the mid-1960s. Ungers influenced

2507-682: Is often divided into two periods known as the " First Romanesque " style and the "Romanesque" style. The difference is chiefly a matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed. The First Romanesque employed rubble walls, smaller windows and unvaulted roofs. A greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque, along with increased use of the vault and dressed stone. The walls of Romanesque buildings are often of massive thickness with few and comparatively small openings. They are often double shells, filled with rubble. The building material differs greatly across Europe, depending upon

2616-466: Is primarily in science as opposed to reverence for and emulation of archaic traditions and beliefs. Rationalist architects, following the philosophy of René Descartes emphasized geometric forms and ideal proportions. The French Louis XVI style emerged in the mid-18th century with its roots in the waning interest of the Baroque period. The architectural notions of the time gravitated more and more to

2725-796: Is the hospital complex at Karang Panjang, Ambon City (1963–1964). Other Indonesian architects active during the period were Sudarsono, Soehamir and Friedrich Silaban . Silaban worked as Head of the Genie in Pontianak, West Kalimantan from 1937, was appointed as Director of the Municipal Works of Bogor in 1942 at the beginning of World War. He completed this position until 1965, interrupted in 1951 for one year architectural study at Academie van Bouwkunst in Amsterdam. He would become one of Indonesia's most renowned architects when his design for

2834-554: Is to use universal form such as cube or cylinder or curving horizontal lines and nautical motifs that are known as Streamline Moderne in the Anglophone world. Industrialization and material standardization plays a role. Albert Aalbers is the most representative expression of Nieuwe Bouwen in Indonesia, apparent in his design for Savoy Homann Hotel (1939), Denis Bank (1936), and the "Driekleur" (1937) in Bandung . In Indonesia,

2943-540: Is typical of the churches that were founded on the pilgrim route. The general impression given by Romanesque architecture, in both ecclesiastical and secular buildings, is one of massive solidity and strength. In contrast with both the preceding Roman and later Gothic architecture , in which the load-bearing structural members are, or appear to be, columns, pilasters and arches, Romanesque architecture, in common with Byzantine architecture , relies upon its walls, or sections of walls called piers. Romanesque architecture

3052-523: The Collège Chaptal and Lycée Voltaire . Architects such as Henri Labrouste and Auguste Perret incorporated the virtues of structural rationalism throughout the 19th century in their buildings. By the early 20th century, architects such as Hendrik Petrus Berlage were exploring the idea that structure itself could create space without the need for decoration. This gave rise to modernism , which further explored this concept. More specifically,

3161-708: The Crusades , the military orders of the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar were founded. The monasteries, which sometimes also functioned as cathedrals, and the cathedrals that had bodies of secular clergy often living in community, were a major source of power in Europe. Bishops and the abbots of important monasteries lived and functioned like princes. The monasteries were the major seats of learning of all sorts. Benedict had ordered that all

3270-630: The Departement voor Burgerlijke Openbare Werken (Public Works Department), developed new standards for the construction of buildings such as hospitals, schools, town halls, post offices, and other public utilities to consider the local (tropical) climate as means to reduce the cost of building construction and maintenance. One of the earliest examples is the Harbour Master's Office in Semarang , an early 19th-century example. Also influencing

3379-715: The Kingdom of Germany giving rise to the Holy Roman Empire . The invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy , in 1066, saw the building of both castles and churches that reinforced the Norman presence. Several significant churches that were built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power, or places of coronation and burial. These include the Abbaye-Saint-Denis , Speyer Cathedral and Westminster Abbey (where little of

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3488-509: The Pyrenees and converged into a single stream to traverse north-western Spain. Along the route they were urged on by those pilgrims returning from the journey. On each of the routes abbeys such as those at Moissac , Toulouse , Roncesvalles , Conques , Limoges and Burgos catered for the flow of people and grew wealthy from the passing trade. Saint-Benoît-du-Sault , in the Berry province,

3597-525: The Technische Hoogeschool in Bandung , these Indonesian natives were either employed by Dutch architects, or established their own design practice. Among these were Anwari and Sukarno (who later became the first president of the Republic of Indonesia ) and who studied architecture at Bandung's Technische Hoogeschool in 1920. Civil engineer Roosseno , who collaborated briefly with Sukarno in 1931, carried out his own construction company from 1932. One of

3706-674: The Twelve Apostles . Santiago de Compostela , located in the Kingdom of Galicia (present day Galicia , Spain) became one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe. Most of the pilgrims travelled the Way of St. James on foot, many of them barefooted as a sign of penance. They moved along one of the four main routes that passed through France, congregating for the journey at Jumièges , Paris, Vézelay , Cluny , Arles and St. Gall in Switzerland. They crossed two passes in

3815-626: The largest mosque in Southeast Asia was chosen. After 1949, few European or European-trained architects and urban planners remained in newly independent Republic of Indonesia. A few remaining architects, such as Blankenberg, Kreisler, Liem and Lüning, designed new town and buildings with their Indonesian colleagues. After the West Irian issue , all Dutch people who had not opted for Indonesian citizenship were repatriated in 1957. Some Dutch architectural firms were closed or nationalized as

3924-469: The "Cluny II" rebuilding of 963 onwards has completely vanished, but we have a good idea of the design of "Cluny III" from 1088 to 1130, which until the Renaissance remained the largest building in Europe. However, the church of St. Sernin at Toulouse , 1080–1120, has remained intact and demonstrates the regularity of Romanesque design with its modular form, its massive appearance and the repetition of

4033-552: The 18th century. Heavy maintenance of the 17th-century Dutch-style buildings in the tropics had forced the Dutch to follow examples from indigenous architecture of Indonesia. The attempt first appears in the Dutch Indies country houses of the 18th and 19th century, a style academically known as Indo-European ( Indo-Europese ) Style or Indies Style ( Indisch Stijl ), also Old Indies Style ( Oud Indische Stijl ) to distinguish it with

4142-513: The 19th century) was built in the early 11th century by Otto III and Henry III, while the ruined Palace at Gelnhausen was received by Frederick Barbarossa prior to 1170. The movement of people and armies also brought about the building of bridges, some of which have survived, including the 12th-century bridge at Besalú , Catalonia , the 11th-century Puente de la Reina, Navarre and the Pont-Saint-Bénézet, Avignon . Across Europe,

4251-718: The 6th-century octagonal Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna being the inspiration for the greatest building of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, the Emperor Charlemagne 's Palatine Chapel, Aachen , Germany, built around the year AD 800. Dating shortly after the Palatine Chapel is a remarkable 9th-century Swiss manuscript known as the Plan of Saint Gall and showing a very detailed plan of

4360-623: The 8th and the 10th centuries in the Iberian Peninsula while " First Romanesque " is applied to buildings in north of Italy and Spain and parts of France that have Romanesque features but pre-date the influence of the Abbey of Cluny . The Romanesque style in England and Sicily is still referred to as Norman architecture . A "dazzling" style developed in Pisa in the mid-11th century is called " Pisan Romanesque ". Eric Fernie writes that by

4469-561: The Alps, a very important group of large city churches survived largely intact. As monasticism spread across Europe, Romanesque churches sprang up in Scotland, Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary, Sicily, Serbia and Tunisia. Several important Romanesque churches were built in the Crusader kingdoms . The system of monasticism in which the religious become members of an order, with common ties and

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4578-455: The City in 1982, explored several of the ideas that inform Neo-rationalism. In seeking to develop an understanding of the city beyond simple functionalism, Rossi revives the idea of typology , following from Quatremère de Quincy, as a method for understanding buildings, as well as the larger city. He also writes of the importance of monuments as expressions of the collective memory of the city, and

4687-479: The Crusades could be suitably commemorated by their family in a work of stone and mortar. The Crusades resulted in the transfer of, among other things, a great number of Holy Relics of saints and apostles . Many churches, like Saint-Front, Périgueux , had their own home grown saint while others, most notably Santiago de Compostela , claimed the remains and the patronage of a powerful saint, in this case one of

4796-714: The Dutch East Indies was similarly influenced with Art Deco in the Netherlands. Art Deco evolved from earlier Berlage -type Rationalism. Characteristic include rich color, bold geometric shapes and ornamentation. The form is symmetrical and exudes technological progress and glamour. One of the earliest example of Art Deco appear in the design of the Semarang Poncol Station (1914). Examples of building of this style are Ghijsels 's former KPM headquarters (1917) and Schoemaker 's Jaarbeurs (1920). Gerber's Gedung Sate shows consideration of local architect in

4905-461: The Modernists. In the Netherlands, the style was strongly influenced by the design of Berlage ; this is reflected in Indonesia as well. Characteristically, New Indies Style is similar with Dutch Rationalism with its use of Romanesque -inspired arches while keeping the regularity of traditional Classicist form. The form began to show functional approach; decorations are reduced. Differences with

5014-607: The Mussolini regime, including the University of Rome (begun in 1932) and the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR) in the southern part of Rome (begun in 1936). The EUR features monumental buildings, many of which evocative of ancient Roman architecture, but absent ornament, revealing strong geometric forms. In the 1950s in Italy, studies on rationalism and the methodology of science were developed in

5123-604: The New Indies Style were new generation of Dutch architects, trained in the Netherlands, who went to the Indies to introduce Modernism . In the 1910s, Dutch architects began experimenting with new material on traditional Dutch forms while developing a tropical-friendly architecture, bridging the evolution of architecture between the Traditionalists and Modernists in the Dutch East Indies. The 1920s and 1930s saw

5232-521: The Pre-Conquest church now remains). At a time when the remaining architectural structures of the Roman Empire were falling into decay and much of its learning and technology lost, the building of masonry domes and the carving of decorative architectural details continued unabated, though greatly evolved in style since the fall of Rome, in the enduring Byzantine Empire . The domed churches of Constantinople and Eastern Europe were to greatly affect

5341-548: The Proto-Romanesque St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim , 1001–1030. Architecture of a Romanesque style also developed simultaneously in the north of Italy, parts of France and in the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century and prior to the later influence of the Abbey of Cluny . The style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque , is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and

5450-561: The Soviet Modernist group ASNOVA were known as 'the Rationalists'. Rational Architecture (Italian: Architettura razionale ) thrived in Italy from the 1920s to the 1940s, under the support and patronage of Mussolini 's Fascist regime. In 1926, a group of young architects – Sebastiano Larco , Guido Frette , Carlo Enrico Rava , Adalberto Libera , Luigi Figini , Gino Pollini and Giuseppe Terragni (1904–43) – founded

5559-487: The Western version is that in the Dutch East Indies, buildings are white-washed, contrasting the dominant brickwork of its Dutch counterpart. Other differences is the exaggerated roof eaves which form a significant overhang which protects any opening, a style that did not appear in the Dutch counterpart. New Indies Style employed the use of the 'double facade' concept which manifested in a covered gallery. The covered gallery

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5668-495: The absence of external ornamentation and other purely decorative devices. In the same period, Nationalism manifested in the quest for a new style of architecture – one that reflected the cultural identity of the region. Some architects began to temper the Modernist ethos by including indigenous architectural elements, thereby creating a distinctively Indonesian style of modern architecture. Maclaine Pont and Thomas Karsten were

5777-565: The advent of Modernism in the Dutch East Indies. Typical features included flat roofs and cubic forms, with minimal consideration of the tropics. Art Deco ornamentation was sometimes incorporated into the design. Albert Frederik Aalbers was one of the representatives of the Modern movement in Indonesia before the Second World War. His work is characterized by its clean-cut, functionalist elevations, which often feature curved lines, and

5886-399: The aisles helped to buttress the nave, if it was vaulted. In the cases where half-barrel vaults were used, they effectively became like flying buttresses . Often aisles extended through two storeys, rather than the one usual in Gothic architecture, so as to better support the weight of a vaulted nave. In the case of Durham Cathedral, flying buttresses have been employed, but are hidden inside

5995-451: The arcades that separate large interior spaces of castles, is the alternation of piers and columns. The most simple form that this takes is to have a column between each adjoining pier. Sometimes the columns are in multiples of two or three. At St. Michael's, Hildesheim , an A B B A alternation occurs in the nave while an A B A alternation can be seen in the transepts. At Jumièges there are tall drum columns between piers each of which has

6104-400: The architectural style which flourished across Europe from the 11th to the 13th century, and is distinguished from the Gothic style that followed by semi-circular arches and more massive forms. The development of vaults from barrel and groin vaults to ribbed vaults was the main structural innovation of this period. The distinction between the style of architecture now known as Romanesque, and

6213-454: The architecture of Lake Toba , the Mentawai islands , and Sunda . The building is a striking example of innovative tropical architecture. With an elongated elevation aligned on an east-west axis, the building is provided with effective natural ventilation. This orientation also minimizes the effect of solar radiation in that the morning and afternoon sun only strikes the narrow end facades of

6322-474: The architecture of certain towns, particularly through trade and through the Crusades . The most notable single building that demonstrates this is St Mark's Basilica , Venice , but there are many lesser-known examples, particularly in France, such as the church of Saint-Front , Périgueux and Angoulême Cathedral . Much of Europe was affected by feudalism in which peasants held tenure from local rulers over

6431-422: The arts were to be taught and practiced in the monasteries. Within the monasteries books were transcribed by hand, and few people outside the monasteries could read or write. In France, Burgundy was the centre of monasticism. The enormous and powerful monastery at Cluny was to have lasting effect on the layout of other monasteries and the design of their churches. Very little of the abbey church at Cluny remains;

6540-602: The atrium at San Clemente in Rome, may have an odd assortment of columns in which large capitals are placed on short columns and small capitals are placed on taller columns to even the height. Architectural compromises of this type are seen where materials have been salvaged from a number of buildings. Salvaged columns were also used to a lesser extent in France. In most parts of Europe, Romanesque columns were massive, as they supported thick upper walls with small windows, and sometimes heavy vaults. The most common method of construction

6649-407: The beginning of the 21st century there is "something like agreement" on the characteristics of the Romanesque style. Some researchers argue that due to an "astonishing diversity" of the Romanesque buildings, a unanimous definition is impossible: "[n]o single model, no single rule, ever seems adequate to prevail", and the Romanesque should be treated as a "collection of trends". Despite disagreement,

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6758-463: The belief that reason and natural forms are tied closely together, and that the rationality of science should serve as the basis for where structural members should be placed. Towards the end of the 18th century, Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand , a teacher at the influential École Polytechnique in Paris at the time, argued that architecture in its entirety was based in science. Other architectural theorists of

6867-481: The brief pre- World War II period. In Indonesia, the term New Indies Style is an academically-accepted term for Dutch Rationalism . Similar with Dutch Rationalism, the style is the result of the attempt to develop new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classicism) with new technological possibilities. It can be described as a transitional style between Traditionalists (the Indies Empire style ) and

6976-569: The building of castles at strategic points, many of them being constructed as strongholds of the Normans, descendants of the Vikings who invaded northern France under Rollo in 911. Political struggles also resulted in the fortification of many towns, or the rebuilding and strengthening of walls that remained from the Roman period. One of the most notable surviving fortifications is that of the city of Carcassonne . The enclosure of towns brought about

7085-644: The building. The external galleries of the building create a double facade which shield the interior from direct sunlight, while cooling towers at either end ensure good ventilation. Other example is the guesthouse of the Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij in Brastagi (1939) by Herman van den Houvel of the Langereis & Co architecture firm. During the colonial period, there were already native Indonesian architects. Graduated from

7194-419: The development of the modern English meaning of the word involved primarily two steps: The French term " romane " was first used in the architectural sense by archaeologist Charles de Gerville in a letter of 18 December 1818 to Auguste Le Prévost to describe what Gerville sees as a debased Roman architecture . In an 1823 public lecture (published in 1824) Gerville's friend Arcisse de Caumont adopted

7303-416: The domestic quarters of monasteries are far rarer, but these used and adapted the features found in church buildings, on a domestic scale. The French term " romane " or the English Romanesque , meaning "in the manner of Romans", has been used to describe the architectural style of the Mediaeval era, preceding the more easily recognizable Gothic architecture, since early in the 19th century. It describes

7412-484: The dynamic interplay of geometrical elements was soon incorporated into the new style and led to bold experiments that combined these structural forms with traditional vernacular ornamentation. Thomas Karsten and Henri Maclaine Pont were among the architects active in developing this movement. One example is the former offices of the Dutch steamtram company Joana Stoomtram Maatschappij in Semarang by Thomas Karsten (1930). The ground plan of this single-storeyed building

7521-411: The end of 1920s, Nieuwe Zakelijkheid ("New Objectivity") became popular in the Dutch East Indies. The form was even more austere and reduced than its predecessor, employing angular shapes and designs that are essentially free of decoration. The style shows early transition into International Style. Earliest example of this is Bank Mandiri Museum (1929), built under a well-planned spatial planning around

7630-420: The famous abbeys of Aux Dames and Les Hommes at Caen and Mont Saint-Michel date from this period, as well as the abbeys of the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela . Many cathedrals owe their foundation to this date, with others beginning as abbey churches, and later becoming cathedrals. In England, of the cathedrals of ancient foundation, all were begun in this period with the exception of Salisbury, where

7739-405: The façade gable and are also seen in Germany. Later Romanesque churches may have wheel windows or rose windows with plate tracery . There are a very small number of buildings in the Romanesque style, such as Autun Cathedral in France and Monreale Cathedral in Sicily in which pointed arches have been used extensively, apparently for stylistic reasons. It is believed that in these cases there

7848-566: The first design coming from an Indonesian native architect was the house of Dr. Han Tiauw Tjong in Semarang (1932), designed by architect Liem Bwan Tjie . Liem Bwan Tjie came from the Peranakan Chinese family in Semarang . In addition to designing private houses, agency houses and offices, Liem Bwan Tjie also created designs for public facilities e.g. cinemas, swimming pool, hospitals and grave monuments. One of his largest assignment

7957-698: The form of its roof. Other variation in the period is Amsterdam School , a part of the international movement of Expressionism which appears around the 1920s as well. The style popularity is not as widespread as in the Netherlands, but influenced details of buildings in the Dutch East Indies. A form of Amsterdam School appear in Cirebon City Hall (1926) by J.J. Jiskoot with its expressive distorted form characteristic of Amsterdam School style. Amsterdam School influence also appear in buildings designed by Schoemaker who often collaborates with sculptors: The expressive relief of Grand Preanger Hotel (1929) and

8066-584: The great abbey churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete and frequently in use. The enormous quantity of churches built in the Romanesque period was succeeded by the still busier period of Gothic architecture, which partly or entirely rebuilt most Romanesque churches in prosperous areas like England and Portugal. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France , rural Spain and rural Italy. Survivals of unfortified Romanesque secular houses and palaces, and

8175-618: The hallmark of today's youth is a desire for lucidity and wisdom...This must be clear...we do not intend to break with tradition...The new architecture, the true architecture, should be the result of a close association between logic and rationality. One of the first rationalist buildings was the Palazzo Gualino in Turin , built for the financier Riccardo Gualino by the architects Gino Levi-Montalcini and Giuseppe Pagano . Gruppo 7 mounted three exhibitions between 1926 and 1931, and

8284-410: The idea of place as an expression of both physical reality and history. Architects such as Leon Krier , Maurice Culot , and Demetri Porphyrios took Rossi's ideas to their logical conclusion with a revival of Classical Architecture and Traditional Urbanism. Krier's witty critique of Modernism, often in the form of cartoons, and Porphyrios's well crafted philosophical arguments, such as "Classicism

8393-448: The label " roman " to describe the "degraded" European architecture from the 5th to the 13th centuries, in his Essai sur l'architecture religieuse du moyen-âge, particulièrement en Normandie , at a time when the actual dates of many of the buildings so described had not been ascertained: "The name Roman (esque) we give to this architecture, which should be universal as it is the same everywhere with slight local differences, also has

8502-432: The land that they farmed in exchange for military service . The result of this was that they could be called upon, not only for local and regional spats, but to follow their lord to travel across Europe to the Crusades, if they were required to do so. The Crusades , 1095–1270, brought about a very large movement of people and, with them, ideas and trade skills, particularly those involved in the building of fortifications and

8611-571: The late 11th and 12th centuries saw an unprecedented growth in the number of churches. A great number of these buildings, both large and small, remain, some almost intact and in others altered almost beyond recognition in later centuries. They include many very well known churches such as Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome, the Baptistery in Florence and San Zeno Maggiore in Verona. In France,

8720-497: The leading exponents here. The term New Indies Style refers specifically to the type of architecture which appeared in the 1910s Dutch East Indies. During the brief transitional period in early 20th century, the style coexisted with other Modern architectural variants in the Dutch East Indies: Art Deco, Expressionist architecture , Nieuwe Zakelijkheid , etc. The styles represent technological progress during

8829-404: The local stone and building traditions. In Italy, Poland, much of Germany and parts of the Netherlands, brick is generally used. Other areas saw extensive use of limestone, granite and flint. The building stone was often used in comparatively small and irregular pieces, bedded in thick mortar. Smooth ashlar masonry was not a distinguishing feature of the style (especially not in the earlier part of

8938-469: The merit of indicating its origin and is not new since it is used already to describe the language of the same period. Romance language is degenerated Latin language. Romanesque architecture is debased Roman architecture." The term " Pre-romanesque " is sometimes applied to architecture in Germany of the Carolingian and Ottonian periods and Visigothic , Mozarab and Asturian constructions between

9047-491: The metal working needed for the provision of arms, which was also applied to the fitting and decoration of buildings. The continual movement of people, rulers, nobles, bishops, abbots, craftsmen and peasants, was an important factor in creating a homogeneity in building methods and a recognizable Romanesque style , despite regional differences. Life became generally less secure after the Carolingian period. This resulted in

9156-455: The monks relocated from the Norman church at Old Sarum , and several, such as Canterbury , which were rebuilt on the site of Saxon churches. In Spain, the most famous church of the period is Santiago de Compostela . In Germany, the Rhine and its tributaries were the location of many Romanesque abbeys, notably Mainz , Worms , Speyer and Bamberg . In Cologne , then the largest city north of

9265-790: The more northern countries, Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, while in Scandinavia they were unknown. Although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of stylistic continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders . In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders. Some traditions of Roman architecture also survived in Byzantine architecture with

9374-624: The most rare, with only a handful of survivors in the United Kingdom, several clusters in France, isolated buildings across Europe and by far the largest number, often unidentified and altered over the centuries, in Italy. Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been substantially altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches. These range from tiny chapels to large cathedrals . Although many have been extended and altered in different styles,

9483-541: The most varied problems posed by the real world could be resolved by reason. In that respect, it represented a reaction to Historicism and a contrast to Art Nouveau and Expressionism . The term Rationalism is commonly used to refer to the wider International Style . The name Rationalism is retroactively applied to a movement in architecture that came about during the Age of Enlightenment (more specifically, Neoclassicism ), arguing that architecture's intellectual base

9592-444: The mouldings of the arch. Piers that occur at the intersection of two large arches, such as those under the crossing of the nave and transept, are commonly cruciform in shape, each arch having its own supporting rectangular pier at right angles to the other. Columns are an important structural feature of Romanesque architecture. Colonnettes and attached shafts are also used structurally and for decoration. Monolithic columns cut from

9701-907: The movement constituted itself as an official body, the Movimento Italiano per l'Architettura Razionale (MIAR), in 1930. Exemplary works include Giuseppe Terragni's Casa del Fascio in Como (1932–36), The Medaglia d'Oro room at the Italian Aeronautical Show in Milan (1934) by Pagano and Marcello Nizzoli , and the Fascist Trades Union Building in Como (1938–43), designed by Cesare Cattaneo, Pietro Lingeri, Augusto Magnani, L. Origoni, and Mario Terragni. Pagano became editor of Casabella in 1933 together with Edoardo Persico. Pagano and Persico featured

9810-577: The nature of the vault dictated that the alternate piers bore a great deal more weight than the intermediate ones and are thus very much larger. The foliate Corinthian style provided the inspiration for many Romanesque capitals, and the accuracy with which they were carved depended very much on the availability of original models, those in Italian churches such as Pisa Cathedral or church of Sant'Alessandro in Lucca and southern France being much closer to

9919-413: The nave from the aisles, and in large secular interiors spaces, such as the great hall of a castle, supporting the timbers of a roof or upper floor. Arcades also occur in cloisters and atriums, enclosing an open space. Arcades can occur in storeys or stages. While the arcade of a cloister is typically of a single stage, the arcade that divides the nave and aisles in a church is typically of two stages, with

10028-619: The newer style. The birth of the New Indies Style was related with the introduction of new building material, the rise of Modernism and the introduction of the Agrarian Law of 1870 in Java. The new law opened Java to foreigners, enabling them to establish private enterprises in the Dutch East Indies . A new type of buildings, developments and standards have to be implemented in the Dutch East Indies. The colonial government, under

10137-568: The period who advanced rationalist ideas include Abbé Jean-Louis de Cordemoy (1631–1713), the Venetian Carlo Lodoli (1690–1761), Abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier (1713–1769) and Quatremère de Quincy (1755–1849). The architecture of Claude Nicholas Ledoux (1736–1806) and Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799) typify Enlightenment rationalism, with their use of pure geometric forms, including spheres, squares, and cylinders. The term structural rationalism most often refers to

10246-406: The period), but it did occur, chiefly where easily worked limestone was available. Because of the massive nature of Romanesque walls, buttresses are not a highly significant feature, as they are in Gothic architecture. Romanesque buttresses are generally of flat square profile and do not project a great deal beyond the wall. In the case of aisled churches, barrel vaults, or half-barrel vaults over

10355-493: The presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band . Charlemagne was crowned by Pope Leo III in Old St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Day of 800, with an aim to re-establishing the old Roman Empire . Charlemagne's political successors continued to rule much of Europe, with a gradual emergence of the separate political states that were eventually to become welded into nations, either by allegiance or defeat, into

10464-421: The sculptures of Bandung Jaarbeurs (1920). Later between 1920 and 1940, Art Deco evolved into a new style known in the Netherlands as Nieuwe Bouwen ( Modernism ) or Functionalism . The new architectural movement is largely influenced by German's Bauhaus and France's Le Corbusier . Instead of creating style on the facade, the architect creates style in the clear and logical arrangement of space. The preference

10573-527: The simple arched window motif. One of the effects of the Crusades , which were intended to wrest the Holy Places of the Levant from Islamic control, was to excite a great deal of religious fervour, which in turn inspired great building programs. The Nobility of Europe, upon safe return, thanked God by the building of a new church or the enhancement of an old one. Likewise, those who did not return from

10682-481: The so-called Gruppo 7 , publishing their manifesto in the magazine Rassegna Italiana . Their declared intent was to strike a middle ground between the classicism of the Novecento Italiano movement and the industrially inspired architecture of Futurism . Their "note" declared: The hallmark of the earlier avant garde was a contrived impetus and a vain, destructive fury, mingling good and bad elements:

10791-411: The station square Waterlooplein of Kota Station , a sample of pre- World War II urban planning which for Southeast Asia was completely unprecedented and new. Other notable examples is Palembang City Hall (Snuyf, 1928-1931, nicknamed Gedung Ledeng , Indonesian "plumb building") and Kota Post Office Building (Baumgartner, 1929). In the Netherlands, the modernist and functionalist Nieuwe Bouwen presents

10900-659: The strong contrast between Nieuwe Bouwen and Indische architectuur, both styles shared the thrust of overcoming the Empire architecture style and symbolic remnants of the 19th century's colonial feudal lords. This new school of thought and design with strongly implement traditional elements using 20th-century technologies and Modernist architectural principles from Europe appeared mainly in the 1920s and 1930s. Indigenous roofs were singled out for particular attention and there were many interesting syntheses of local and European forms and construction techniques. The interest of Modernists in

11009-803: The style is characterized by its openness, the sleek facade lines, and strong spatial effect on the exterior and retreat of curtain wall. Many buildings employing this variation of Art Deco still exist in Bandung, one of the largest remaining collections of Streamline Moderne - Art Deco buildings in the world. Other examples of Nieuwe Bouwen in Indonesia are the works of Cosma Citroen , K. Bos , W. Lemei , Liem Bwan Tjie and some buildings of AIA Bureau of Schoemaker, namely Bandung Jaarbeurs , which he designed shortly after his study trip to America, clearly inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright . Also Villa Isola shows strong influence of Nieuwe Bouwen in its steel framing construction, steel windows, and reinforced concrete. By

11118-509: The style preceding Gothic was not recognized as a whole, and was instead, just like Gothic at the time, treated as a multitude of styles: Giorgio Vasari and Christopher Wren were writing about "Tuscan", "Saxon", or "Norman" architectures. The word Romanesque ("in the manner of Romans" ) appeared in English by 1666, and was used to designate what are now called Romance languages . Definition of Romanesque architecture changed over time;

11227-594: The succeeding style of Gothic architecture was recognised as early as the 15th century, as demonstrated by some artworks of that period. Robert Campin clearly presented the division in his Marriage of the Virgin ; on the left side, representing the Old Testament , the building is in the Romanesque style, while that on the right, representing the New Testament , is Gothic. Until the 19th century, however,

11336-457: The term became a "common currency", and is universally accepted at least for convenience. Buildings of every type were constructed in the Romanesque style, with evidence remaining of simple domestic buildings, elegant town houses, grand palaces, commercial premises, civic buildings, castles, city walls, bridges, village churches, abbey churches, abbey complexes and large cathedrals. Of these types of buildings, domestic and commercial buildings are

11445-399: The triforium gallery. The arches used in Romanesque architecture are nearly always semicircular, for openings such as doors and windows, for vaults and for arcades. Wide doorways are usually surmounted by a semi-circular arch, except where a door with a lintel is set into a large arched recess and surmounted by a semi-circular "lunette" with decorative carving. These doors sometimes have

11554-672: The twentieth century in particular by Gualtiero Galmanini , who left an imprint that was later followed by many, influencing the starchitects of his time. In the late 1960s, a new rationalist movement emerged in architecture, claiming inspiration from both the Enlightenment and early-20th-century rationalists. Like the earlier rationalists, the movement, known as the Tendenza, was centered in Italy. Practitioners include Carlo Aymonino (1926–2010), Aldo Rossi (1931–97), and Giorgio Grassi . The Italian design magazine Casabella featured

11663-536: The work of the rationalists in the magazine, and its editorials urged the Italian state to adopt rationalism as its official style. The Rationalists enjoyed some official commissions from the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini, but the state tended to favor the more classically inspired work of the National Union of Architects. Architects associated with the movement collaborated on large official projects of

11772-505: The work of these architects and theorists. The work of architectural historian Manfredo Tafuri influenced the movement, and the University Iuav of Venice emerged as a center of the Tendenza after Tafuri became chair of Architecture History in 1968. A Tendenza exhibition was organized for the 1973 Milan Triennale . Rossi's book L'architettura della città , published in 1966, and translated into English as The Architecture of

11881-430: Was to build them out of stone cylinders called drums, as in the crypt at Speyer Cathedral . Where really massive columns were called for, such as those at Durham Cathedral , they were constructed of ashlar masonry and the hollow core was filled with rubble. These huge untapered columns are sometimes ornamented with incised decorations. A common characteristic of Romanesque buildings, occurring both in churches and in

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