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80-680: The New York City Sheriff's Office ( NYCSO ), officially the Office of the Sheriff of the City of New York , is the primary civil law enforcement agency for New York City . The Sheriff 's Office is a division of the New York City Department of Finance , operating as an enforcement arm. The Sheriff's Office handles investigations concerning cigarette tax enforcement, real estate property/deed fraud and other matters deemed necessary by

160-494: A "marijuana-like-high" would follow his recipes and methods. Eicosanoid synthetic cannabinoids are analogs of endocannabinoids , such as anandamide . Endocannabinoids are cannabinoids naturally occurring in the body. One of the best known synthetic analogs of anandamide is methanandamide . The synthetic cannabinoids that have emerged recently have even greater structural diversity, possibly to subvert legal regulations on earlier generations of synthetic cannabinoids. There are

240-587: A concentrated liquid form in the United States and United Kingdom since 2016. They have been marketed as herbal incense, or "herbal smoking blends", and sold under common names like K2 , spice , and synthetic marijuana . They are often labeled "not for human consumption" for liability defense. A large and complex variety of synthetic cannabinoids are designed in an attempt to avoid legal restrictions on cannabis , making synthetic cannabinoids designer drugs . Most synthetic cannabinoids are agonists of

320-426: A condition where the blood's ability to clot is impaired. 2 deaths and over 41 hospitalizations have been directly linked to this specific outbreak as of December 16, 2021. Synthetic cannabinoids have been speculated to be involved in vaping-associated pulmonary injury (VAPI). The Austrian Ministry of Health announced on December 18, 2008, that Spice would be controlled under Paragraph 78 of their drug-law on

400-461: A derivative of HU-210 , is a hybrid cannabinoid because it has the dibenzopyran ring common of classical cannabinoids and an aliphatic hydroxyl group common in the CP family of nonclassical cannabinoids. Aminoalkylindoles are structurally dissimilar to THC and include naphthoylindoles ( JWH-018 ), phenylacetylindoles ( JWH-250 ), and benzoylindoles ( AM-2233 ). Aminoalkylindoles are considered to be

480-441: A dibenzopyran ring. They were developed starting in the 1960s, following the isolation of THC, and were originally the only cannabinoids synthesized. Classical cannabinoids include nabilone and dronabinol , and one of the best known synthetic classical cannabinoids is HU-210 . HU-210 is a chiral compound first synthesized by Raphael Mechoulam at Hebrew University in the 1980s. It was discovered in herbal incense products by

560-587: A family history of mental illness . Individuals with risk factors for psychotic disorders are often counseled against using synthetic cannabinoids. Psychiatrists have suggested that the lack of an antipsychotic chemical, like CBD in natural cannabis , may make synthetic cannabinoids more likely to induce psychosis than natural cannabis. There are five major categories for synthetic cannabinoids: classical cannabinoids, non-classical cannabinoids, hybrid cannabinoids, aminoalkylindoles , and eicosanoids . Classical cannabinoids are analogs of THC that are based on

640-431: A few different structural classifications of synthetic cannabinoids that include many of the new structures, some of which are shown in table one. The indazole carboxamide group, including APINACA (AKB-48), an adamantyl indazole carboxamide, and AB-PINACA , an aminocarbonyl indazole carboxamide, is an example of a new group of synthetic cannabinoids. Most clandestine manufacturers and producers only make small changes to

720-489: A full background investigation. In addition to deputy sheriffs, the Sheriff's Office employs sworn criminal investigators and an assortment of civilian support personnel. As of May 3, 2022, Anthony Miranda was appointed the 122nd Sheriff of the City of New York. The uniform of the Sheriff's Office is a typical NYC law enforcement agent's uniform, with a dark blue shirt with metal badge and collar pins, dark blue trousers, tie, jacket and peaked cap . The Field Support Unit wears

800-426: A height, and wandering into traffic; cardiovascular effects; and central nervous system depression . Researchers have pointed out a few ways that synthetic cannabinoids differ from marijuana, and therefore may be more dangerous. First, they often have greater intrinsic activity . Many of the synthetic cannabinoids are full agonists of the cannabinoids receptors , CB 1 and CB 2 , compared to THC , which

880-405: A less formal version without metal badges and pins, and with writing on their shirts and jackets. A variety of vests, gloves and other appropriate gear for the season/duty can be worn. The New York City Sheriff's Office is composed of three sections: Operations, Intelligence, and Support. The operations section is composed of the five county field offices and certain units working citywide. Within

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960-429: A range of 1.1–1.5 ng/mL of 5F-PB-22 . Three of the four cases were sudden episodes and the symptoms leading to death included acute shortness of breath; vasocongestion in the liver, spleen, and kidneys; bilateral pulmonary edema ; dead inflamed tissue (necrotizing granulomatous inflammation); and congestion of most internal organs. The fourth case presented to the hospital with severe problems that deteriorated over

1040-469: A shorthand for "trial courts in civil cases". In England and other common-law countries, the burden of proof in civil proceedings is, in general—with a number of exceptions such as committal proceedings for civil contempt —proof on a balance of probabilities . In civil cases in the law of the Maldives , the burden of proof requires the plaintiff to convince the court of the plaintiff's entitlement to

1120-506: A strong compulsion to re-dose, withdrawal symptoms , and persistent cravings. There have been several deaths linked to synthetic cannabinoids. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that the number of deaths from synthetic cannabinoid use tripled between 2014 and 2015. In 2018, the United States Food and Drug Administration warned of significant health risks from synthetic cannabinoid products that contain

1200-422: A suitable replacement for the naphthoyl moiety that is currently regulated by US scheduling laws . Although most synthetic cannabinoids are not direct analogs of THC, they share many common features with THC. Most are lipid-soluble , non-polar , small molecules (usually 20–26 carbon atoms) that are fairly volatile , making them "smokable", like THC. Another common feature of most synthetic cannabinoids and THC

1280-533: A synthetic cannabinoid called 5F-ADB over one weekend in July 2018. The Department of Public Health released that they believe "5F-ADB was the primary cause of the cluster of patients with these adverse drug reactions." On December 10, 2021, the Hillsborough County, Florida department of health reported cases of "rat poison" contaminated synthetic blends linked to symptoms associated with coagulopathy,

1360-871: A synthetic cannabinoid, either AMB-FUBINACA or AB, in Christchurch over two days. Some of the people were in critical condition in the Intensive Care Unit . On October 20, 2011, the Louisiana State University football program announced that it had suspended three players, including star cornerback Tyrann Mathieu , who tested positive for synthetic cannabinoids. On July 12, 2016, 33 people were intoxicated by an herbal "incense" product called "AK-47 24 Karat Gold", and dozens overdosed , in Brooklyn . Eighteen people were transported to local hospitals. The herbal "incense" product

1440-468: A wide array of plants. However, oftentimes, none of the listed ingredients have been detectable. Herbal components of 'Spice' (a non-exhaustive list): Many of the early synthetic cannabinoids that were synthesized for use in research were named after either the scientist who first synthesized them or the institution or company where they originated. Some of the names of synthetic cannabinoids synthesized for recreational use were given names to help market

1520-506: A wide variety of legal process, with orders of protection considered a priority. Each county field office is complemented by civilian support staff to assist in daily administrative functions and customer service. These field offices are accessible to the public, giving citizens of the county/borough a local place to file court process in need of enforcement. Deputies of the Operations Section may be assigned to duties separate from

1600-699: Is a NMDA receptor antagonist and is largely inactive as a cannabinoid . On the other hand, aminoalkylindoles , eicosanoids , and the other new synthetic cannabinoid groups typically do not have an asymmetric center, so they are usually not stereospecific. Recently there has been an increase in the emergence of terminally fluorinated synthetic cannabinoids, such as 5F-PB-22 (fluorinated version of PB-22 ) and XLR-11 (fluorinated version of UR-144 ). South Korea's National Forensic Service reported that 90% of all seized synthetic cannabinoids in 2013 were fluorinated, compared to no fluorinated synthetic cannabinoids reported in 2010. 5F-derivations (terminal fluorination) of

1680-424: Is a list of the citywide sheriffs since the original five county positions were merged. The position is appointed by the mayor of New York City . The first sheriff of New York County, Jan Lampo, was in office in 1626, although his title was Schout . Prior to 1942 the sheriff of New York County was an elected position. Civil law (common law) The common law system, which originated in medieval England ,

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1760-423: Is a side-chain of five to nine saturated carbon atoms. It has been found that this chain of carbons is required for optimal psychotropic activity from binding CB 1 receptors . Also, most synthetic cannabinoids are agonists of both cannabinoid receptors , CB 1 and CB 2 , like THC; however, they often have greater binding affinity and therefore greater potency than THC, as seen in table two. Due to

1840-474: Is controversial and, according to Lewis Nelson, a medical toxicologist at the NYU School of Medicine, a mistake. Nelson claims that relative to marijuana , products containing synthetic cannabinoids "are really quite different, and the effects are much more unpredictable. It's dangerous". Since the term synthetic does not apply to the plant, but rather to the cannabinoid that the plant contains ( THC ),

1920-473: Is most often used for confirmation and quantitation. There are commercially available EMIT kits for the screening of the synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018 , JWH-073 , JWH-398 , JWH-200 , JWH-019 , JWH-122 , JWH-081 , JWH-250 , JWH-203 , CP-47,497 , CP-47,497-C8 , HU-210 , HU-211 , AM-2201 , AM-694 , RCS-4 , and RCS-8 through companies like NMS Labs, Cayman Chemical, and Immunoanalysis Corporation. In September 2018, at least 10 people overdosed on

2000-540: Is often contrasted with the civil law legal system originating in France and Italy. Whereas the civil law takes the form of legal codes such as the Napoleonic code , the common law comes from uncodified case law that arises as a result of judicial decisions, recognising prior court decisions as legally binding precedent . When used in the context of a common law legal system, the term civil law means that branch of

2080-454: Is only a partial agonist . Secondly, they may have other actions in the body, in addition to activating cannabinoid receptors. Some may work on NMDA glutamate receptors. Some may also work on serotonin , either indirectly by inhibiting MAO and increasing 5-HT 1A expression , or by directly binding to serotonin receptors, including the 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 3 subtypes; some researchers speculate that this activity may be because

2160-409: Is to inflict punishment. However, exemplary damages or punitive damages may be awarded in civil proceedings. It was also formerly possible for common informers to sue for a penalty in civil proceedings. Because some courts have both a civil and criminal jurisdiction, civil proceedings cannot be defined as those taken in civil courts. In the United States, the expression "civil courts" is used as

2240-531: The New York City Police Department took over the responsibility of policing and criminal investigations throughout New York City, while the Sheriff's Office continued to focus on civil law enforcement and administering the county prison systems. Sheriffs were compensated by charging fees for enforcing civil orders in addition to keeping a monetary percentage (known as poundage) of what their office would seize. By 1915, plans were made by

2320-560: The New York State Civil Practice Law and Rules (CPLR) concerning civil procedure . The sheriff's office also employs special officers who support the deputy sheriffs and criminal investigators. Their uniform patch is similar to the NYPD 's School Safety and Traffic Enforcement divisions, with "PUBLIC SAFETY" over the top of the sheriff patch, to distinguish them from deputies. Special officers work as part of

2400-475: The U.S. Customs and Border Protection in January 2009; however, classical cannabinoids are not often seen in synthetic cannabinoid blends for recreational use , likely because they are difficult to synthesize. Non-classical cannabinoids include cyclohexylphenols (CP), which were first synthesized in the late 1970s to 1980s by Pfizer as potential analgesics . The C8 homologue of CP-47,497 ( CP-47,497-C8 )

2480-627: The Wisconsin Department of Health Services confirmed 16 more cases, bringing the total number of people affected by the outbreak in Wisconsin to 80 people since March 2018, including one death in July 2018. In August 2018, there were almost one hundred overdose cases reported over two days in New Haven, Connecticut from a bad batch of K2. The synthetic cannabinoid was believed to have been mixed with fentanyl , although no fentanyl

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2560-576: The cannabinoid receptors . They have been designed to be similar to THC , the natural cannabinoid with the strongest binding affinity to the CB 1 receptor , which is linked to the psychoactive effects or "high" of marijuana . These synthetic analogs often have greater binding affinity and greater potency to the CB 1 receptors. There are several synthetic cannabinoid families (e.g., AM- xxx , CP- xx,xxx , HU- xx , JWH- xxx ) which are classified by

2640-469: The endocannabinoids that activate them in the body. Synthetic cannabinoids were needed partly due to legal restrictions on natural cannabinoids, which make them difficult to obtain for research. Many have been useful because they bind selectively to either the CB1 or CB2 receptors, whereas THC has a similar affinity for both. Tritium -labelled cannabinoids such as CP-55,940 were instrumental in discovering

2720-425: The indole moiety that some synthetic cannabinoids possess is similar to the structure of serotonin. Third, synthetic cannabinoids may break down into metabolites, or create other by-products when heated, that may differ from marijuana. Phase 1 metabolism of JWH-018 results in at least nine monohydroxylated metabolites , three of which have been shown to be full agonists of the CB 1 receptors , compared to

2800-421: The metabolism of THC , which only results in one psychoactive monohydroxylated metabolite. The metabolite N-(3-hydroxypentyl) JWH-018 was found to have toxic effects that its parent compound does not. Some metabolites even appear to be cannabinoid antagonists . Lastly, they may contain unwanted substances, be mislabeled, or contain different doses than advertised (in one analysis, a difference of one log unit

2880-556: The "synthetic cannabinoids" but as a "synthetic phytocannabinoid". In the early 2000s, synthetic cannabinoids began to be used for recreational drug use in an attempt to get similar effects to cannabis . Because synthetic cannabinoid molecular structures differ from THC and other illegal cannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids were not technically illegal. Since the discovery of the use of synthetic cannabinoids for recreational use in 2008, some synthetic cannabinoids have been made illegal , but new analogs are continually synthesized to avoid

2960-409: The 1–10 μg/L range during the first few hours after recreational usage and the metabolites are usually present in urine at similar concentrations. Little to no parent drug is present in urine, so there is a lot of research to try and identify the major urinary metabolites that could be used as markers of synthetic cannabinoid intake. The major urinary metabolites in most cases are formed by oxidation of

3040-592: The Department of Finance. In addition, as the city's chief civil law enforcement agency concerning the New York State Court System, the Sheriff's Office enforces a variety of mandates, orders, warrants and decrees issued by courts. Enforcement tools include evictions, seizure of property, arrests and garnishments. Auctions are conducted for property the agency seizes and levies upon. The New York City Sheriff's Office originated in 1626 under

3120-539: The Dutch . Under later English rule, the position became known as the New York County Sheriff's Office. Originally each of the city's five county- boroughs had its own sheriff, each of which held the widest law enforcement jurisdiction in their respective county-boroughs. Like most sheriffs in the United States , these office holders were elected to their positions. Once the city was consolidated in 1898,

3200-675: The LEB, either within a county field office or citywide. These duties include arrests and apprehensions on behalf of other non enforcement city agencies such as the Human Resources Administration, the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene and the Administration for Children's Services. Deputies may be assigned to scofflaw enforcement or security duties at the city treasury. The Operations Section will also provide deputies for any other assignment as deemed necessary by

3280-564: The Office of the Sheriff of the City of New York. The city's five county sheriffs were abolished and replaced with borough "chief deputies" (later undersheriffs ) reporting to the now mayorally-appointed citywide sheriff. A contemporary report of the changes emphasized professionalization of the office, which had become notorious for employing political patronage beneficiaries. The new top five commanders were "all college graduates" and "lawyers like their chief, who promises to keep out politics". At

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3360-447: The US that caused coagulopathy (prolonged or excessive bleeding) and resulted in the treatment of over 300 people and at least eight deaths. One of the most common non-cannabinoid ingredients in these products is oleamide , a fatty acid derivative that acts similarly to a cannabinoid and has hypnotic properties. Analysis of 44 products synthetic cannabinoid revealed oleamide in 7 of

3440-601: The United States advising of 89 confirmed cases of "serious unexplained bleeding" in Illinois. The cases are still being studied; however, 63 of the patients reported synthetic cannabinoid use, and laboratory analysis confirmed brodifacoum was present in at least 18 patients. As of April 24, 2018, 153 cases, including four deaths, linked to this outbreak have been reported to the Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH) since March 7, 2018. On September 18, 2018,

3520-691: The agency. Deputy sheriffs and criminal investigators ( sheriff detective and sheriff investigator ) are New York State peace officers with authority to make warrantless arrests, issue summonses, carry and use a firearm, conducted energy device, baton, pepper spray, handcuffs. Deputy sheriffs receive their peace officer status pursuant to the New York State Criminal Procedure Law (CPL) §2.10 subdivision 2, while criminal investigators receive their peace officer status from CPL §2.10 subdivision 5. Deputy sheriffs are also civil enforcement officers with authority to enforce

3600-688: The agency. The intelligence section is composed of the Bureau of Criminal Investigation (BCI) and the Intelligence Unit. The BCI investigates city tax violation, real property larceny/deed fraud, synthetic narcotic enforcement (such as spice/K2 and bath salts ) and offenses against the Department of Finance. The Intelligence Unit collects, analyzes, and disseminates information from various sources to be readily available for agency use. The support section handles communications, property disposition, evidence destruction and field support services for

3680-612: The alkyl side-chain to an alcohol and carboxylic acid followed by glucuronide conjugation and also by N-dealkylation and aromatic hydroxylation. For example, the main metabolites of JWH-018 , of which there are over 20, include carboxylated, monohydroxylated, dihydroxylated, and trihydroxylated metabolites, but they are mostly excreted in urine as glucuronide conjugates. The presence of synthetic cannabinoids or their metabolites in bodily fluids may be determined using specifically targeted commercially available immunoassay screening methods (EMIT), while liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

3760-593: The brand name Spice, were first released in 2005 by the now-dormant company the Psyche Deli in London. In 2006, the brand gained popularity. According to the Financial Times , the assets of the Psyche Deli rose from £65,000 in 2006 to £899,000 in 2007. The EMCDDA reported in 2009 that Spice products were identified in 21 of the 30 participating countries. Because of these controversies, and in particular

3840-406: The cannabinoid receptors in the early 1990s. Some early synthetic cannabinoids were also used clinically. Nabilone , a first generation synthetic THC analog, has been used as an antiemetic to combat vomiting and nausea since 1981. Synthetic THC (marinol, dronabinol ) has been used as an antiemetic since 1985, and an appetite stimulant since 1991, although synthetic THC is often not listed among

3920-492: The combination of O -desmethyltramadol , a μ- opioid agonist and analgesic drug, and kratom , an Asiatic medicinal plant containing mitragynine , another μ- opioid agonist , in a synthetic cannabinoid product called "Krypton". And in 2013, AH-7921 was detected in smoking blends in Japan. In 2018, there was an outbreak of synthetic cannabinoids contaminated with anticoagulants , mainly brodifacoum , in at least 11 states in

4000-448: The commissioner of accounts to alter the way sheriffs were compensated to include a determined salary instead of having the office holder personally retain fees and poundage. Although fees and poundage would still be charged by sheriffs, the monies would be retained for their respective county's use only. In 1938, the first female deputy sheriff was appointed. On January 1, 1942, the city's five county sheriff's offices were merged to become

4080-529: The county field offices, deputy sheriffs assigned to civil enforcement duties are referenced as Law Enforcement Bureau (LEB) personnel. LEB deputies perform a wide array of tasks such as evictions, civil arrest warrants, orders to commit, and the seizure and sale of property pursuant to judicial mandates. Businesses and individuals that owe the city money pursuant to unpaid tax warrants, environmental control board summons and fire and health code violation fines are targeted for enforcement action. LEB deputies also serve

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4160-709: The course of a day, ending with circulatory , respiratory , central nervous system , and renal failure . There have been reports of a strong compulsion to re-dose, withdrawal symptoms , and persistent cravings lasting up to a week after taking synthetic cannabinoids, indicating that synthetic cannabinoids may be more addictive than marijuana . Studies have strongly linked particular synthetic cannabinoids with psychosis . The use of synthetic cannabinoids can be associated with psychosis and physicians are beginning to investigate if some patients with inexplicable psychotic symptoms may have at one point used synthetic cannabinoids. In contrast to most other recreational drugs ,

4240-706: The creator of the substance (e.g., JWH stands for John W. Huffman ), which can include several substances with different base structures such as classical cannabinoids and unrelated naphthoylindoles. Synthetic marijuana compounds began to be manufactured and sold in the early 2000s. From 2008 to 2014, 142 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists were reported to the European Monitoring-Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Reported user negative effects include palpitations , paranoia , intense anxiety , nausea , vomiting, confusion, poor coordination, and seizures. There have also been reports of

4320-495: The difficulty of distinguishing natural cannabinoids obtained in laboratory (for example, CBD or synthetic THC ) from artificial novel synthetic cannabinoid analog compounds not present in nature (like nabilone, Spice, the HU, JWH series, etc.), the term "neocannabinoid" has been proposed to name the latter. Synthetic cannabinoids were made for cannabinoid research focusing on tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinoid receptors , and

4400-457: The dramatic psychotic state induced by use of synthetic cannabinoids has been reported, in multiple cases, to persist for several weeks, and in one case for seven months, after complete cessation of drug use. Some studies suggest that not only can synthetic cannabinoids induce psychosis, but they can worsen previously stable psychotic disorders and might trigger a chronic (long-term) psychotic disorder among vulnerable individuals such as those with

4480-433: The greater potency, the standard doses of many synthetic cannabinoids may be less than 1 mg. Most classical, non-classical, and hybrid synthetic cannabinoids have stereospecificity (one stereoisomer is usually much more potent than the other(s)). For example, HU-210 is the (–) enantiomer of 11-OH-Δ -THC-DMH and a full agonist of the CB 1 receptor ; the (+) enantiomer of 11-OH-D -THC-DMH, known as HU-211 ,

4560-689: The grounds that it contains an active substance that affects the functions of the body, and the legality of JWH-018 is under review. JWH-018, CP 47,497 and the C6, C8, and C9 homologues of CP 47,497 have been illegal in Germany since January 22, 2009. Since November 26, 2016, about 80–90% of the substances belonging to the group of synthetic cannabinoids are illegal in Germany as the law does not cover all chemical structures. JWH-018, CP 47,497 (and its homologues), and HU-210 were all made illegal in France on February 24, 2009. From June 2010, JWH-018, along with

4640-403: The intention of making a synthetic cannabinoid prodrug , which might improve absorption and confound detection. Ester bonds are easily biodegradable through spontaneous or endogenous , nonspecific esterase hydrolysis, which has been commonly used in medicinal chemistry to make ester prodrugs. The reason for the change to the quinolone substructure is unknown, but it may have been found to be

4720-487: The law not including criminal law. Civil litigation refers to legal proceedings undertaken to resolve a dispute rewarding an alleged civil wrong and seeking redress or payment of damages . It includes the process of one party notifying the other that they have a cause for action. It is often suggested that civil litigation proceedings are undertaken for the purpose of obtaining compensation for injury, and may thus be distinguished from criminal proceedings, whose purpose

4800-422: The most common synthetic cannabinoids found in synthetic cannabinoid blends, likely due to the fact that these molecules are easier to synthesize than classical and non-classical cannabinoids. The JWH molecules were first synthesized by John William Huffman at Clemson University in the late 1990s. The FBI concluded in a 2012 memo that as a result of the publication of J.W. Huffman's research, people searching for

4880-445: The name is formatted as LinkedGroup-TailCoreLinker. For example, in 5F-MDMB-PINACA (also known as 5F-ADB ), 5F stands for the terminal fluorine or "fluorine on carbon 5" of the pentyl chain; MDMB stands for "methyl-3,3-dimethyl butanoate", the linked group; and PINACA stands for "pentyl chain (tail) indazole (core) carboxamide (linker)". Use of the term "synthetic marijuana" to describe products containing synthetic cannabinoids

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4960-436: The negative effects of 5F-AKB-48 reported by users included palpitations , paranoia , intense anxiety, and a taste like burned plastic. In addition, while there are no fatal overdose cases linked to marijuana , there are deaths linked to synthetic cannabinoids each year. The most common mechanisms leading to death following synthetic cannabinoid use include behavioral risks, such as self-harm and suicide , falling from

5040-479: The products tested. Other non-cannabinoid ingredients that have been found in synthetic cannabinoid blends include harmine and harmaline , reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors , which have been found with myristicin and asarone ; substituted cathinone derived stimulant drugs such as 4-methylbuphedrone and 4'-methyl-alpha-PPP ; and psychedelic tryptamine derivatives such as 4-HO-DET . Packages of synthetic cannabinoid products can claim to contain

5120-415: The products. For example, AKB-48 (also known as APINACA ) is also the name of a popular Japanese girl band ; 2NE1 (also known as APICA ) is also a South Korean girl band ; and XLR-11 was named after the first USA-developed liquid fuel rocket for aircraft . Now many synthetic cannabinoids are assigned names derived from their four main structural components, core, tail, linker, and linked group, where

5200-545: The rat poison brodifacoum , which is added because it is thought to extend the duration of the drugs' effects. Severe illnesses and death have resulted from this contamination. Synthetic cannabinoids reagent testing kits have recently become economical. It is often difficult to determine what is in these products without reagent testing because masking agents , such as tocopherol (or vitamin E acetate that causes vaping-associated pulmonary injury ), eugenol , and fatty acids , are added to confound identification. Just as

5280-441: The relief sought. This means that the plaintiff must prove each element of the claim, or cause of action in order to recover. The cost of pursuing civil litigation has sometimes been highlighted as excessive relative to the scale of the issue to be resolved. Where costs are too high, they can restrict access to justice. Synthetic cannabinoids Synthetic cannabinoids are a class of designer drug molecules that bind to

5360-1176: The restrictions. Synthetic cannabinoids have also been used recreationally because they are inexpensive and are typically not revealed by the standard marijuana drug tests . Unlike nabilone , the synthetic cannabinoids found being used for recreational use did not have any documented therapeutic effects . Because they activate the cannabinoid CB 1 and CB 2 receptors, many of the effects of synthetic cannabinoids are similar to those of THC. These are achieved at lower doses, because many synthetic cannabinoids are more potent than marijuana, and users are often unaware of exactly what they are getting and how potent it is. For example, Δ -THC has an EC 50 of 250 nM at CB 1 and 1157 nM at CB 2 , whereas PB-22 has an EC 50 of 5.1 nM at CB 1 and 37 nM at CB 2 . Adverse effects observed due to synthetic cannabinoid use include acute kidney injury , cardiac toxicity , seizure , stroke , tremor , hypokalemia , and rhabdomyolysis . Some negative effects of 5F-PB-22 reported by users included nausea , vomiting , confusion , poor coordination , anxiety , and seizures. Some of

5440-448: The same receptors to which cannabinoids ( THC , CBD and many others) in cannabis plants attach. These novel psychoactive substances should not be confused with synthetic phytocannabinoids (obtained by chemical synthesis ) or synthetic endocannabinoids from which they are in many aspects distinct. Typically, synthetic cannabinoids are sprayed onto plant matter and are usually smoked, although they have also been ingested as

5520-408: The same time, the sheriff's former responsibility for running prison systems was transferred to the newly established New York City Department of Correction . In order to be appointed as deputies, candidates must first pass a civil service entrance examination and meet educational/experiential requirements. Candidates must also pass medical and psychological examinations, physical ability tests, and

5600-450: The sole agent, 66.1% reported problems in the central nervous system (e.g., agitation, coma , toxic psychosis ), 17% reported cardiovascular problems (e.g., tachycardia , bradycardia ), 7.6% reported pulmonary problems (5.4% of which had respiratory depression ), and 4% reported acute kidney injury . Four postmortem cases linked to the synthetic cannabinoids 5F-PB-22 have been reviewed. The postmortem blood specimens contained

5680-467: The specific antibodies in the EMIT for marijuana do not bind to them. Also, due to their high potency , a very small dose of synthetic cannabinoids is used; moreover, synthetic cannabinoids are highly metabolized by the body, so the window to detect the parent drug (the synthetic cannabinoid itself) in blood and oral fluid is very small. Serum concentrations of synthetic cannabinoids are generally in

5760-474: The structure of a synthetic cannabinoid, such as changing an indole to indazole structure ( AM-2201 to THJ-2201 ) or terminal fluorine replacement; however, one group that was unprecedented when discovered by forensic scientists in 2013, was the quinolinyl ester synthetic cannabinoids. PB-22 and 5F-PB-22 were the first synthetic cannabinoids to include a quinoline substructure and an ester linkage . These compounds are thought to have been synthesized with

5840-767: The synthetic cannabinoid(s) used differ between each synthetic cannabinoid product sold, so do the other contents of the counterfeit product. Synthetic cannabinoids appear in many CBD brands in products such as gummy bears and vape cartridges. Synthetic cannabinoid components of 'Spice' (a non-exhaustive list): Most blends consist of synthetic cannabinoids sprayed onto inert vegetable matter, but some contain other psychoactive substances , including psychoactive herbs, e.g., wild dagga and indian warrior , and psychoactive alkaloids , e.g., betonicine, aporphine , leonurine , nuciferine , and nicotine . Some synthetic cannabinoids products have also been found to contain synthetic opioids . For example, in 2010, nine people died due to

5920-549: The synthetic cannabinoids have been found to be about 2–5 times more potent at CB 1 receptors than their un-fluorinated counterparts, as shown in table two. Synthetic cannabinoids are typically not identified by the standard marijuana drug tests including the immunoassay test ( EMIT ), GC-MS screening, and multi-target screening by LC-GC/MS because those tests only detect the presence of THC and its metabolites. Although most synthetic cannabinoids are analogs of THC, they are structurally different enough that, for example,

6000-526: The team of sheriff's deputies and detectives and perform bailiff functions and protect the NYC Finance Administrative Hearings Tribunal. Ranks Since the establishment of the sheriff's offices throughout the five counties of New York City, seven sworn officers have died in the line of duty. Effective January 1, 1942, one citywide sheriff began serving all five counties within the City of New York. The following

6080-566: The term synthetic cannabinoid is more appropriate. Nearly 700 "herbal incense" blends exist. They are often called "synthetic marijuana", "natural herbs", "herbal incense", or "herbal smoking blends" and often labeled "not for human consumption". In some Spanish-speaking countries, such as Chile and Argentina, such preparations are often referred to as cripy . According to the Psychonaut Web Mapping Research Project, synthetic cannabinoids, sold under

6160-474: Was determined to be a synthetic cannabinoid called AMB-FUBINACA . Since March 2018, Illinois, Wisconsin, Maryland, and 8 other states in the United States have had an outbreak of severe bleeding caused by a synthetic cannabinoid contaminated with brodifacoum , a rat poison that causes bleeding. Illinois was hit the hardest and on April 5, 2018, the CDC issued a Clinical Action alert to health care providers across

6240-562: Was found). No official studies have been conducted on the effects of synthetic cannabinoids on humans (as is often the case with illegal and potentially toxic compounds); however, user reports and the effects experienced by patients seeking medical care after taking synthetic cannabinoids have been published. Each of the many different synthetic cannabinoids can have different effects at different dosages. The CDC described synthetic cannabinoid overdoses between 2010 and 2015 and of 277 drug overdose patients who reported synthetic cannabinoid as

6320-567: Was identified in samples of the drug tested by the DEA . From September 21–22, 2018, almost 50 people overdosed and two people died in the Kensington area of Philadelphia . Officials believed the cause to be a combination of heroin or fentanyl and a synthetic cannabinoid. This same area in Philadelphia had 155 people overdose and 10 people die from a combination of heroin, fentanyl, and

6400-443: Was one of the first synthetic cannabinoids being used recreationally. CP-47,497-C8 is made by extending the dimethylheptyl side chain of CP-47,497 to a dimethyloctyl side chain. It was discovered by forensic scientists in a herbal blend known as "Spice" in 2008, along with JWH-018 , an aminoalkylindole . Hybrid cannabinoids have a combination of classical and non-classical cannabinoid structural features. For example, AM-4030 ,

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