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113-813: The 2nd New Zealand Division , initially the New Zealand Division , was an infantry division of the New Zealand Military Forces (New Zealand's army) during the Second World War . The division was commanded for most of its existence by Lieutenant-General Bernard C. Freyberg . It fought in Greece , Crete , the Western Desert and Italy . In the Western Desert Campaign, the division played

226-748: A sidearm or ancillary weapons . Infantry with ranged or polearms often carried a sword or dagger for possible hand-to-hand combat. The pilum was a javelin the Roman legionaries threw just before drawing their primary weapon, the gladius (short sword), and closing with the enemy line. Modern infantrymen now treat the bayonet as a backup weapon, but may also have handguns as sidearms . They may also deploy anti-personnel mines, booby traps, incendiary, or explosive devices defensively before combat. Infantry have employed many different methods of protection from enemy attacks, including various kinds of armour and other gear, and tactical procedures. The most basic

339-622: A "prima donna" who "had to be handled with kid gloves" leading the Army Reserve. Clark feared that, due to Freyberg's extensive experience, he would question or dispute his orders. What concerned him most was that he feared that General Alexander might decide to use the New Zealand Corps to replace Major General Geoffrey Keyes ' U.S. II Corps and "snatch the victory which the Americans had so dearly bought". The failure of

452-587: A New Zealand Corps to execute a left hook around the main Axis defenses through the Tebaga Gap . The attack was launched on 21 March and the entrance to the gap had been secured after four days fighting but no break through made. Further reinforcements from British X Corps were sent to the Tebaga Gap and overall control of the operation transferred to X Corps commander Brian Horrocks . Operation Supercharge II

565-738: A Victoria Cross, despite recommendations from senior officers, including Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks . Elements of the division, the 9th Brigade , were reorganized as the division disbanded to become J Force , (Japan), the New Zealand contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan. Headquarters New Zealand Division Order of battle taken from the New Zealand Official History. Infantry Infantry

678-628: A few exceptions like the Mongol Empire , infantry has been the largest component of most armies in history. In the Western world , from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages ( c. 8th century BC to 15th century AD), infantry are categorised as either heavy infantry or light infantry . Heavy infantry, such as Greek hoplites , Macedonian phalangites , and Roman legionaries , specialised in dense, solid formations driving into

791-603: A fourth battalion. By the spring of 1945 the 27th Machine-Gun Battalion had also been converted to infantry and the division's infantry reorganized into three brigades each with three battalions. Manpower shortages in the division were also eased when the 3rd New Zealand Division , then fighting in the Pacific War against the Japanese , had been disbanded in October 1944 and 4,000 of its officers and men then transferred to

904-512: A full suit of attack-proof armour would be too heavy to wear in combat. As firearms improved, armour for ranged defence had to be made thicker and heavier, which hindered mobility. With the introduction of the heavy arquebus designed to pierce standard steel armour, it was proven easier to make heavier firearms than heavier armour; armour transitioned to be only for close combat purposes. Pikemen armour tended to be just steel helmets and breastplates, and gunners had very little or no armour at all. By

1017-697: A half. On 18 November 1941, the division took part in Operation Crusader. The New Zealand troops crossed the Libyan frontier into Cyrenaica , and linked up with the British 70th Infantry Division of the Tobruk Garrison on 26 November. Operation Crusader was an overall success for the British and the New Zealand troops withdrew to Syria to recover. The campaign in Libya was the most costly that

1130-417: A hundred meters wide and a dozen rows deep. Maintaining the advantages of heavy infantry meant maintaining formation; this became even more important when two forces with heavy infantry met in battle; the solidity of the formation became the deciding factor. Intense discipline and training became paramount. Empires formed around their military. The organization of military forces into regular military units

1243-399: A problem. This can be avoided by having shield-armed soldiers stand close together, side-by-side, each protecting both themselves and their immediate comrades, presenting a solid shield wall to the enemy. The opponents for these first formations, the close-combat infantry of more tribal societies , or any military without regular infantry (so called " barbarians ") used arms that focused on

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1356-742: A prominent role in both Battles of El Alamein. During the First Battle of El Alamein, in July 1942, the division put in a night attack against the Afrika Korps , commanded by Erwin Rommel . As no armoured support was available to the division after their night attack against the Germans at Ruweisat Ridge , the 4th New Zealand Brigade was shattered, with the loss of around 3,000 men, during the fighting that resulted when German Panzers counter-attacked

1469-709: A prominent role in the defeat of German and Italian forces in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the British Eighth Army 's advance to Tunisia . In late 1943, the division was moved to Italy, taking part in the Eighth Army's campaign on Italy's Adriatic coast, which ground to a halt at the end of the year. In early 1944, the division formed the nucleus of the New Zealand Corps , fighting two battles attempting unsuccessfully to penetrate

1582-542: A pursuit force comprising 2nd New Zealand and 8th and 10th Indian Infantry Divisions . On 10 June elements of the division entered Avezzano and the division passed into army reserve to spend a period of rest and training. In mid July, the division joined British XIII Corps, under Lieutenant-General Sidney C. Kirkman , at the Trasimene Line as reinforcements ahead of a set piece offensive planned to carry an advance to Arezzo . The New Zealand Division acted as guard to

1695-440: A return to body armour for infantry, though the extra weight is a notable burden. In modern times, infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including military gas masks , counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these protective measures add to the weight an infantryman must carry, and may decrease combat efficiency. Early crew-served weapons were siege weapons , like

1808-493: A third of the division. The mood of those was not improved by the break from Italy. They found a large number of fighting-fit men were exempt from conscription due to being classed as in essential occupations. Wages had also risen in response to the lack of labour in the market so the differential from a soldiers pay was even higher. In the resulting Furlough Mutiny many refused to return to Italy; between exemptions granted and desertions about 13% of those furloughed returned leaving

1921-405: A withdrawal to Buerat on the 12th. The division then formed the left flank of the advancing Eighth Army and on 16 December had an opportunity to trap the retreating Axis forces. However, the division's troops were strung out and without anti-tank guns. The 15th Panzer Division was therefore able to punch through and secure the line of retreat. A further unsuccessful attempt to get to the rear of

2034-463: Is personal armour . This includes shields , helmets and many types of armour – padded linen , leather, lamellar , mail , plate , and kevlar . Initially, armour was used to defend both from ranged and close combat; even a fairly light shield could help defend against most slings and javelins, though high-strength bows and crossbows might penetrate common armour at very close range. Infantry armour had to compromise between protection and coverage, as

2147-419: Is a specialization of military personnel who engage in warfare combat . Infantry generally consists of light infantry , irregular infantry , heavy infantry , mountain infantry , motorized infantry , mechanized infantry , airborne infantry , air assault infantry , and naval infantry . Other types of infantry, such as line infantry and mounted infantry , were once commonplace but fell out of favor in

2260-744: Is first noted in Egyptian records of the Battle of Kadesh ( c.  1274 BC ). Soldiers were grouped into units of 50, which were in turn grouped into larger units of 250, then 1,000, and finally into units of up to 5,000 – the largest independent command. Several of these Egyptian "divisions" made up an army, but operated independently, both on the march and tactically, demonstrating sufficient military command and control organisation for basic battlefield manoeuvres. Similar hierarchical organizations have been noted in other ancient armies, typically with approximately 10 to 100 to 1,000 ratios (even where base 10

2373-424: The 15th Panzer and 90th Light Divisions ; the following morning, the armour continued to be attacked, suffering heavy losses. However, the 9th Armoured Brigade's sacrifice had made the follow-up successes possible. Following the victory at Alamein, the Eighth Army advanced west through Libya to El Agheila. For much of this time, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery , the Eighth Army commander since August 1942,

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2486-814: The 4th Armoured Brigade . The division returned to battle in the Italian Campaign in late 1943, rejoining the Eighth Army. The division came into the front line in November and took part in the advance across the Sangro at the end of the month. During December the division was involved in very heavy fighting during the Moro River Campaign at Orsogna . By the end of the year the deteriorating winter weather made movement of even tracked vehicles impossible except on metaled roads and severely impeded vital close air support operations. This, together with

2599-501: The Battle of Crete (May 1941), Operation Crusader (November–December 1941), Minqar Qaim (June 1942), First Battle of El Alamein (July 1942), Second Battle of El Alamein (October–November 1942), Libya and Tunisia (December 1942 – May 1943), the Sangro (October–December 1943), Battle of Monte Cassino (February–March 1944), Central Italy (May–December 1944), and the Adriatic Coast (April–May 1945). In March 1941,

2712-703: The French Expeditionary Corps ) they were attempting to breach the strongest and most fortified point of the Gustav Line. As part of his plan, and encouraged by the complaints from Tucker, Freyberg insisted to Clark that the monastery should be flattened by bombing in the preparatory stage of the attack. General Alexander, although expressing the opinion that it would be regrettable to destroy the Benedictine Order monastery-built around AD 529—supported Freyberg's insistence that reducing

2825-607: The Gazala battles , fresh forces were brought up to check the Axis forces in their drive into Egypt. The 2nd New Zealand Division was transported from Syria to Mersa Matruh . In the ensuing battle, the division's retreat was cut off on 27 June when the 21st Panzer Division got to the east of the division. That night, the division's 4th Brigade broke through the German positions, and the division retired to El Alamein . The division played

2938-798: The Gustav Line at Monte Cassino . The division saw further action on the Gothic Line in Italy in 1944 and took part in the Allied 1945 Spring offensive , which led to the surrender of German forces in Italy in May. After returning to New Zealand, reorganised elements of the division formed part of the occupational forces in Japan from 1945. At the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, it

3051-1142: The Royal Dragoon Guards , Royal Lancers , and King's Royal Hussars . Similarly, motorised infantry have trucks and other unarmed vehicles for non-combat movement, but are still infantry since they leave their vehicles for any combat. Most modern infantry have vehicle transport, to the point where infantry being motorised is generally assumed, and the few exceptions might be identified as modern light infantry . Mechanised infantry go beyond motorised, having transport vehicles with combat abilities, armoured personnel carriers (APCs), providing at least some options for combat without leaving their vehicles. In modern infantry, some APCs have evolved to be infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs), which are transport vehicles with more substantial combat abilities, approaching those of light tanks . Some well-equipped mechanised infantry can be designated as armoured infantry . Given that infantry forces typically also have some tanks, and given that most armoured forces have more mechanised infantry units than tank units in their organisation,

3164-442: The ballista , trebuchet , and battering ram . Modern versions include machine guns , anti-tank missiles , and infantry mortars . Beginning with the development the first regular military forces, close-combat regular infantry fought less as unorganised groups of individuals and more in coordinated units, maintaining a defined tactical formation during combat, for increased battlefield effectiveness; such infantry formations and

3277-469: The 1800s with the invention of more accurate and powerful weapons. In English, use of the term infantry began about the 1570s, describing soldiers who march and fight on foot. The word derives from Middle French infanterie , from older Italian (also Spanish) infanteria (foot soldiers too inexperienced for cavalry), from Latin īnfāns (without speech, newborn, foolish), from which English also gets infant . The individual-soldier term infantryman

3390-576: The 2nd NZ Division. In April 1945, the division, still as part of British V Corps with 8th Indian Division, was performing assault crossings of first the Senio stream and then the river Santerno between Ravenna and Bologna , marking the start of the Allied spring 1945 offensive in Italy . The division was subsequently transferred to XIII Corps and the closing days of the Second World War saw

3503-533: The 2nd New Zealand Division fought during the Second World War , with 879 men killed, and 1,700 wounded. Originally known as the 'New Zealand Division', the division became known as 2nd New Zealand Division from June 1942 onward as part of the Operation Cascade deception scheme and the 'formation' of Maadi Camp , the division's base area in Egypt, as "6th NZ Division". After the Eighth Army's defeat in

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3616-640: The 2nd New Zealand Division race to Trieste in northern Italy to work with Josip Broz Tito 's partisans, and liberate the city from German troops. By the end of the war, the New Zealand Division had a reputation as a tough formation with good troops. This opinion had earlier been expressed by Rommel in his report to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht on 21 July 1942 (at the end of the First Battle of El Alamein ) in which he highly rated

3729-576: The 4th Indian Division was making no progress up the mountain. The 20th Armoured Regiment which was to have supported them, considered the road too risky, as numerous hairpin bends had not been secured. German reinforcements continued to arrive, bolstering the defences in town, as well as on the Cassino massif. Attempts by the NZ Division to expand their perimeter in town continued on 16 March— XIV Panzer Corps reported in this regard "... south of

3842-527: The American all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment (ALICE). Infantrymen are defined by their primary arms – the personal weapons and body armour for their own individual use. The available technology, resources, history, and society can produce quite different weapons for each military and era, but common infantry weapons can be distinguished in a few basic categories. Infantrymen often carry secondary or back-up weapons, sometimes called

3955-454: The Axis forces to withdraw in good order and when leading elements of Eighth Army entered Tripoli in the early morning of 23 January its defenders had left. The Eighth Army arrived on the Mareth defensive line on the border with Tunisia shortly after the fall of Tripoli. After an unsuccessful attempt to break through the Axis defenses at Mareth , the New Zealand Division was reinforced to form

4068-585: The Battle for Crete, 671 New Zealanders were killed, 967 wounded and 2,180 captured. During the battle, Charles Upham was awarded the first of his two Victoria Crosses . Following the disasters in Europe, the division was then integrated into the regular order of battle of the British Eighth Army . It fought in many of the critical battles in the North African Campaign over the next year and

4181-460: The British (and Dominions) to attempt to strike the final blow against the Axis line at Cassino. By this time, U.S. VI Corps had already landed at Anzio and were under heavy threat from the reinforcing Germans. An outright destruction of the Anzio beachhead was a possibility, given the relentless enemy air, artillery, and ground assaults against VI Corps. General Alexander advised Freyberg to ready

4294-691: The British. Consequently, the Greek forces in Macedonia were divided in two major groupings, which fought separate battles. The Eastern Macedonia Army Section (Τμήμα Στρατιάς Ανατολικής Μακεδονίας, ΤΣΑΜ) under Lt. Gen. Konstantinos Bakopoulos covered the pre-war fortifications of the Metaxas Line , between Mount Beles and the Nestos river. The Central Macedonia Army Section (Τμήμα Στρατιάς Κεντρικής Μακεδονίας, ΤΣΚΜ) under Lt. Gen. Ioannis Kotoulas

4407-423: The Cassino massif had ground to a halt and the "Battle for Rome" had stalled. The 15th Army Group commander General Sir Harold Alexander and Fifth Army commander Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark looked around for solutions to penetrate the defences, as their careers and reputations were irrevocably linked with success on this front, particularly due to Winston Churchill 's insistence at this time, that Italy

4520-405: The Cassino slopes. The advance into Cassino town by the 6th NZ Brigade went wrong from the start as the 19th Armoured tanks were unable to pass through the badly damaged roads, covered in rubble and bomb craters. The infantry, advancing without tanks came under severe fire from German paratroopers in the town, their fire further preventing armoured engineer bulldozers from clearing access routes for

4633-534: The Eighth Army and who would later command the Allied land forces in the invasion of Normandy , recommended that the division should be used in the invasion of Normandy but the New Zealand government did not approve the move. This was because the division was fighting at Monte Cassino at the time. Captain Charles Upham , VC and Bar , of the New Zealand Division, was the only person to be awarded

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4746-586: The Eighth Army commander wrote: At times the enemy fought almost fanatically. They had, apparently, been ordered to hold on south of Florence at all costs. Eventually, the general advance came to a halt about 5,000 yards south of Florence and the River Arno. Owing to the necessity to take over the French front, 13th Corps was very extended. It was doubtful whether we could break into the defences until we had brought up more reserves. However, determined attacks by

4859-621: The Germans gradually gained the upper hand over the Allied forces in the Battle of Crete. By the end of the month, German soldiers had once again overwhelmed British and Commonwealth forces, and it was decided to evacuate the division from the island, again without its heavy weapons. This evacuation was to Egypt, with the forces landing in Alexandria in June. The unit's ability to help itself to enemy—and Allied—heavy weapons and transport led to it being nicknamed "Freyberg's Forty Thousand Thieves". In

4972-472: The NZ Corps to take over from U.S. II Corps, under Major General Geoffrey Keyes, also advising him that enemy reinforcements had arrived and that even greater resistance could be expected. Freyberg's plan initially included a wide flanking attack—differentiating it from the approach previously used by Keyes' II Corps. This flanking movement was eventually excluded from the final plan and Freyberg dictated that

5085-597: The NZ perimeter. By 20 March a company of Gurkhas overran Point 435 on Hangman's Hill, 500 yards from the Abbey, but were again driven back by German fire from unassailable positions. The NZ Division re-occupied the railway station and the botanical gardens in the town and the process of attack and counterattack continued until 23 March when Alexander decided to call off the offensive. The Monte Cassino Abbey, although totally destroyed by now, remained firmly in German hands. Following

5198-522: The New Zealand Corps to capture Cassino reduced these fears and eventually made Clark more amenable towards the New Zealand Corps. Alexander also withdrew the 4th Indian Infantry Division as well as the British 78th Infantry Division from Eighth Army to join this strategic reserve. This formation was initially known as "Spadger Force" to confuse German intelligence, with the commander, General Freyberg being known as "Spadger". The Corps later became known as

5311-438: The New Zealand Corps under command of the U.S. Fifth Army. The New Zealand Corps was not, however, a truly of corps size, since it lacked a full staff and set of corps troops. It was more a temporary extension of the division - New Zealand simply did not have the resources to fully man a corps level formation. On 8 February, Clark conceded to Alexander that U.S. II Corps would not succeed with any further attacks and he "allowed"

5424-599: The New Zealand Division against the Poggio al Pino and Poggiona high ground S.E. of Florence gained the day. The New Zealand Division fought magnificently over a period of four days. If it had not been for their effort it would have been necessary to check along the whole front until we could bring in fresh divisions. Kirkman, the Corps commander also wrote: Now that we have entered Florence, I should like to say how much 13 Corps owes to 2 NZ Division during its recent fighting. In

5537-570: The New Zealand Division. This view was repeated within the German 5th Panzer Division intelligence reports. Rommel also paid tribute to the division in his memoirs: This division, with which we had already become acquainted back in 1941–1942, was among the elite of the British Army and I should have been very much happier if it had been safely tucked away in our prison camps instead of still facing us. General Bernard Montgomery , who commanded

5650-496: The New Zealand infantry the following morning. It was for his actions in this battle that Charles Upham was awarded the Bar to his VC , becoming only the third man to be awarded the VC twice and the first soldier in a combatant role. Also at Ruweisat, Sergeant Keith Elliott of 22nd Battalion was awarded the VC for continuing to lead his company, despite wounds, in assaults which led to

5763-462: The Rapido River bridgehead and the NZ Division were forced to use all their guns to fire smoke onto the bridge and railway station areas to mask the withdrawal of the 28th Battalion. The attack had failed, and so had the 4th Indian Division attack on Point 593. On the evening of 14 March, the battalions of the NZ Corps were alerted that Operation Bradman, the bombing of Cassino, was approved for

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5876-507: The Swiss, English, Aragonese and German, to men-at-arms who went into battle as well-armoured as knights, the latter of which at times also fought on foot. The creation of standing armies —permanently assembled for war or defence—saw increase in training and experience. The increased use of firearms and the need for drill to handle them efficiently. The introduction of national and mass armies saw an establishment of minimum requirements and

5989-590: The Victoria Cross twice during the Second World War. Other Victoria Crosses were awarded to Jack Hinton , Alfred Hulme , Keith Elliott , and Moana-Nui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu . Lance Sergeant Haane Manahi of the Māori Battalion was posthumously honoured in 2007 by representatives of the Queen after it was decided that his Distinguished Conduct Medal , awarded for actions at Takrouna , was not to be upgraded to

6102-443: The arms they used developed together, starting with the spear and the shield. A spear has decent attack abilities with the additional advantage keeping opponents at distance; this advantage can be increased by using longer spears, but this could allow the opponent to side-step the point of the spear and close for hand-to-hand combat where the longer spear is near useless. This can be avoided when each spearman stays side by side with

6215-469: The attack be along the same unsuccessful lines as used by the Americans the month before. Major-General Francis Tuker , commander of the 4th Indian Division, voiced strong disapproval regarding the plan to Freyberg, his new Corps Commander—as his division was to lead the now, frontal assault . Tuker also expressed his concern over Freyberg's apparent obsession with reducing the monastery on Monte Cassino, arguing that (supported by General Juin , commanding

6328-476: The battles for Arezzo and Florence your troops as always fought magnificently, and gave us the extra punch that was necessary to eject the enemy from his chosen positions in the very difficult country south of the River Arno ... In the autumn of 1944, the division fought as part of I Canadian Corps during Operation Olive, the offensive on the Gothic Line . In November 1944 it was then transferred to British V Corps . With one armoured and two infantry brigades,

6441-411: The carrying burden is spread across several infantrymen. In all, this can reach 25–45 kg (60–100 lb) for each soldier on the march. Such heavy infantry burdens have changed little over centuries of warfare; in the late Roman Republic, legionaries were nicknamed " Marius' mules " as their main activity seemed to be carrying the weight of their legion around on their backs, a practice that predates

6554-425: The conquest of Greece. After the unexpected coup d'état in Yugoslavia on 27 March, the objective of the Panzer Group was changed to invading Yugoslavia and capturing Zagreb. As such, its command was handed over to General Maximilian von Weichs' 2nd Army, which was invading Yugoslavia from the north. The Greek Army had been fighting against the Italians since 28 October 1940, and the bulk of its forces (15+ divisions)

6667-461: The defence of Crete against further German attacks. As Freyberg was judged to have performed extremely well during the evacuation of Greece, he was given command of all Allied forces for the defence of the island. Consequently, the New Zealand Division temporarily lost him as its commander. However, the attempt to defend Crete was as doomed as that to defend Greece had been. The German paratroopers landed in May 1941. While suffering many casualties,

6780-401: The destruction of five machine guns plus an anti-tank gun and the capture of 130 prisoners . During the Second Battle of El Alamein, the division broke through the German positions and got behind Rommel's flank. During the night of 1–2 November 1942, the British 9th Armoured Brigade was to have advanced in support of an attack by the division. However, it was stopped in the minefield lanes by

6893-463: The distinction between mechanised infantry and armour forces has blurred. The first military forces in history were infantry. In antiquity , infantry were armed with early melee weapons such as a spear , axe , or sword , or an early ranged weapon like a javelin , sling , or bow , with a few infantrymen being expected to use both a melee and a ranged weapon. With the development of gunpowder , infantry began converting to primarily firearms . By

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7006-414: The division commanders were insisting that a preliminary high-point (Point 593) was to be captured as a prelude to the main attack. The 4th Indian Division was to attack in an arc towards the south and south west, taking Point 593 and then moving south east, up the heights towards the Abbey. The 4th Indian Division would only advance on the Abbey, once the NZ Division had attacked south and south east taking

7119-426: The division depleted of experienced troops. Although news of the mutiny was suppressed, the soldiers remaining in Italy were well aware of the situation leading to a drop in morale. Meanwhile, to the west of the Eighth Army on the other side of the Apennine Mountains , Italy's central mountain spine, the U.S. Fifth Army had also been fighting its way north. By the end of January 1944, the Fifth Army's attacks against

7232-411: The division was deployed to Greece to assist British and Australian forces in defending the country from an expected German invasion. The New Zealanders were combined with Australian and British forces as ' W Force ' under Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson . The immediate operational commander was Australian Lieutenant-General Thomas Blamey with his I Australian Corps headquarters, which

7345-440: The division was involved in what was called the "Furlough Mutiny". This was "an affair that has received little attention in the literature of the Second World War" but which according to the military historian Jonathan Fennell had significant military and political implications for New Zealand's subsequent wartime role. Fennell asserts that the aftermath of the 'mutiny' meant that "the New Zealand soldier, to all intents and purposes,

7458-408: The division was well organised for mobile warfare as experienced in North Africa. In the mountainous terrain and difficult conditions underfoot found in Italy, however, tank mobility was very restricted and the division always found itself short of infantry. During the winter of 1944–45 the Divisional Cavalry Regiment and 22nd (Motor) Battalion were converted to infantry, giving each infantry brigade

7571-411: The division, initially, as the New Zealand Division. The first echelon, 2NZEF Headquarters and the 4th Infantry Brigade , left New Zealand in January and landed in Egypt on 12 February 1940. The second echelon, the 5th Infantry Brigade , was diverted to Britain on Italy's entry into the war, joining the British VII Corps . Composite elements were formed into an extra brigade, 7th Brigade , to strengthen

7684-455: The enemy to prepare for the main forces' battlefield attack, protecting them from flanking manoeuvers , and then afterwards either pursuing the fleeing enemy or covering their army's retreat. After the fall of Rome, the quality of heavy infantry declined, and warfare was dominated by heavy cavalry , such as knights , forming small elite units for decisive shock combat , supported by peasant infantry militias and assorted light infantry from

7797-442: The eponymous Gaius Marius . When combat is expected, infantry typically switch to "packing light", meaning reducing their equipment to weapons, ammunition, and other basic essentials, and leaving other items deemed unnecessary with their transport or baggage train , at camp or rally point, in temporary hidden caches, or even (in emergencies) simply discarding the items. Additional specialised equipment may be required, depending on

7910-400: The existence of any organised military, likely started essentially as loose groups without any organisation or formation. But this changed sometime before recorded history ; the first ancient empires (2500–1500 BC) are shown to have some soldiers with standardised military equipment, and the training and discipline required for battlefield formations and manoeuvres: regular infantry . Though

8023-434: The expected duration of time operating away from their unit's base, plus any special mission-specific equipment. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the entrenching tool —basically a folding spade —which can be employed not only to dig important defences, but also in a variety of other daily tasks, and even sometimes as a weapon. Infantry typically have shared equipment on top of this, like tents or heavy weapons, where

8136-643: The failure to capture Orsogna led the Allies to call off the Adriatic coast offensive until spring brought better conditions in the skies and under foot. In response to complaints from the troops, the New Zealand government extended a three month furlough was to those in the Mediterranean who had been in service longest with the result that about 6,000 of the most experienced troops of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force returned to New Zealand including about

8249-477: The hill had been secured and as it was already dark, further delays were encountered by the Indian Division struggling to find Castle Hill. The Indian advance on Hangman's Hill only commenced after midnight, further compounded by heavy rain. The next morning, while concentrated German artillery fire and house to house fighting pinned the 2nd New Zealand Division in that portion of the town which they held,

8362-889: The individual – weapons using personal strength and force, such as larger swinging swords, axes, and clubs. These take more room and individual freedom to swing and wield, necessitating a more loose organisation. While this may allow for a fierce running attack (an initial shock advantage) the tighter formation of the heavy spear and shield infantry gave them a local manpower advantage where several might be able to fight each opponent. Thus tight formations heightened advantages of heavy arms, and gave greater local numbers in melee. To also increase their staying power, multiple rows of heavy infantrymen were added. This also increased their shock combat effect; individual opponents saw themselves literally lined-up against several heavy infantryman each, with seemingly no chance of defeating all of them. Heavy infantry developed into huge solid block formations, up to

8475-422: The introduction of special troops (first of them the engineers going back to medieval times, but also different kinds of infantry adopted to specific terrain, bicycle, motorcycle, motorised and mechanised troops) culminating with the introduction of highly trained special forces during the first and second World War. Naval infantry, commonly known as marines , are primarily a category of infantry that form part of

8588-466: The invasion defences. The third echelon, the 6th Infantry Brigade , arrived in Egypt on 27 October 1940 and concentration of the division was completed after the second echelon, no longer required in Britain, reached Egypt the following March. The division remained as part of the British Eighth Army to the end of World War II in 1945, during which it fought in the Battle of Greece (March–April 1941),

8701-463: The left hook. These results have led to the complete disintegration of the enemy resistance and the whole Mareth position. Give my congratulations to all your officers and men, and tell them how pleased I am with all they have done. The division continued to fight in Tunisia with Eighth Army until Tunis fell to First Army on 7 May, prompting the surrender of the remaining Axis forces. During 1943,

8814-725: The lower classes. Towards the end of Middle Ages, this began to change, where more professional and better trained light infantry could be effective against knights, such as the English longbowmen in the Hundred Years' War . By the start of the Renaissance , the infantry began to return to a larger role, with Swiss pikemen and German Landsknechts filling the role of heavy infantry again, using dense formations of pikes to drive off any cavalry. Dense formations are vulnerable to ranged weapons. Technological developments allowed

8927-417: The main enemy lines, using weight of numbers to achieve a decisive victory , and were usually equipped with heavier weapons and armour to fit their role. Light infantry, such as Greek peltasts , Balearic slingers , and Roman velites , using open formations and greater manoeuvrability, took on most other combat roles: scouting , screening the army on the march, skirmishing to delay, disrupt, or weaken

9040-447: The main force of the army, these forces were usually kept small due to their cost of training and upkeep, and might be supplemented by local short-term mass-conscript forces using the older irregular infantry weapons and tactics; this remained a common practice almost up to modern times. Before the adoption of the chariot to create the first mobile fighting forces c.  2000 BC , all armies were pure infantry. Even after, with

9153-487: The mid 17th century began replacement of the pike with the infantry square replacing the pike square. To maximise their firepower, musketeer infantry were trained to fight in wide lines facing the enemy, creating line infantry . These fulfilled the central battlefield role of earlier heavy infantry, using ranged weapons instead of melee weapons. To support these lines, smaller infantry formations using dispersed skirmish lines were created, called light infantry, fulfilling

9266-595: The mission or to the particular terrain or environment, including satchel charges , demolition tools, mines , or barbed wire , carried by the infantry or attached specialists. Historically, infantry have suffered high casualty rates from disease , exposure, exhaustion and privation — often in excess of the casualties suffered from enemy attacks. Better infantry equipment to support their health, energy, and protect from environmental factors greatly reduces these rates of loss, and increase their level of effective action. Health, energy, and morale are greatly influenced by how

9379-435: The monastery be considered a military necessity. The Allied planes dropped 442 tons of bombs on the Abbey and its immediate environs in two separate attacks on 15 February, one between 09:30 and 10:00 and the other between 10:30 and 13:30, but the infantry attack, which was to commence directly after the second bombing mission, was delayed due to differences regarding H-Hour between Freyberg and his 7th Indian Brigade . Also,

9492-772: The naval forces of states and perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious operations , as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from naval operations. Air force infantry and base defense forces are used primarily for ground-based defense of air bases and other air force facilities. They also have a number of other, specialist roles. These include, among others, Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and training other airmen in basic ground defense tactics. Infentory W Force The German forces were grouped under Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm List 's 12th Army , which comprised: The 1st Panzer Group did not participate in any significant way in

9605-411: The next day. In a third attempt to penetrate the Gustav Line, the Corps was again launched against Cassino town and the monastery on top of the massif. By this time, U.S. VI Corps, which had landed at Anzio some two months before, had still not been able to break out of its beachhead, though pressure on the beachhead had significantly decreased since the beginning of the month. This third assault on Cassino

9718-400: The others in close formation, each covering the ones next to him, presenting a solid wall of spears to the enemy that they cannot get around. Similarly, a shield has decent defence abilities, but is literally hit-or-miss; an attack from an unexpected angle can bypass it completely. Larger shields can cover more, but are also heavier and less manoeuvrable, making unexpected attacks even more of

9831-458: The raising of large numbers of light infantry units armed with ranged weapons, without the years of training expected for traditional high-skilled archers and slingers. This started slowly, first with crossbowmen , then hand cannoneers and arquebusiers , each with increasing effectiveness, marking the beginning of early modern warfare , when firearms rendered the use of heavy infantry obsolete. The introduction of musketeers using bayonets in

9944-534: The right flank of the Eighth Army attack. Some of the division's armoured elements were detached, however, and placed under command of the British 4th Infantry Division and 8th Indian Infantry Division to take part in XIII Corps attack in the centre of the front. When the New Zealand tanks returned from 8th Indian Division in early June, Major-General Dudley Russell , the 8th Indian Division's commander wrote to Freyberg saying: I wish you to know how glad I

10057-510: The right flank of the corps. Arezzo was captured on 16 July and the advance was continued towards the River Arno and Florence . The New Zealand Division's capture of the eastern crests of the Pian dei Cerri hills at the start of August was the turning point of the battle for Florence. Florence was declared an open city and Allied troops entered on 4 August. Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese ,

10170-1041: The same multiple roles as earlier light infantry. Their arms were no lighter than line infantry; they were distinguished by their skirmish formation and flexible tactics. The modern rifleman infantry became the primary force for taking and holding ground on battlefields as an element of combined arms . As firepower continued to increase, use of infantry lines diminished, until all infantry became light infantry in practice. Modern classifications of infantry have since expanded to reflect modern equipment and tactics, such as motorised infantry , mechanised or armoured infantry , mountain infantry , marine infantry , and airborne infantry . Beyond main arms and armour, an infantryman's "military kit" generally includes combat boots , battledress or combat uniform , camping gear , heavy weather gear, survival gear , secondary weapons and ammunition , weapon service and repair kits, health and hygiene items, mess kit , rations , filled water canteen , and all other consumables each infantryman needs for

10283-723: The soldier is fed, so militaries issue standardised field rations that provide palatable meals and enough calories to keep a soldier well-fed and combat-ready. Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances, and communication with artillery and other support units. Modern infantry can have GPS , encrypted individual communications equipment, surveillance and night vision equipment, advanced intelligence and other high-tech mission-unique aids. Armies have sought to improve and standardise infantry gear to reduce fatigue for extended carrying, increase freedom of movement, accessibility, and compatibility with other carried gear, such as

10396-620: The tanks of the 19th Armoured Regiment and at the same time, the 4th Indian Division was to advance on Hangman's Hill after which they were to assault the Monastery. The next morning, the 4th NZ Armoured Brigade was to take over from American tanks in the Liri Valley while the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade and small NZ tank groups were to advance up the Cavendish Road (built by Indian engineers) to clear any pockets of resistance on

10509-471: The tanks. Although the armour had been stopped, the NZ Infantry still held some parts of the town, including the strategic Castle Hill. Freyberg's orders had defined that the 4th Indian Division would only commence their advance on the Abbey, once Castle Hill had been secured, as they were to pass through the NZ lines on the hill as they progressed up the mountain. It took two hours to pass the message that

10622-464: The time of Napoleonic warfare , infantry, cavalry and artillery formed a basic triad of ground forces, though infantry usually remained the most numerous. With armoured warfare , armoured fighting vehicles have replaced the horses of cavalry, and airpower has added a new dimension to ground combat, but infantry remains pivotal to all modern combined arms operations. The first warriors, adopting hunting weapons or improvised melee weapons, before

10735-445: The time of the musket, the dominance of firepower shifted militaries away from any close combat, and use of armour decreased, until infantry typically went without wearing any armour. Helmets were added back during World War I as artillery began to dominate the battlefield, to protect against their fragmentation and other blast effects beyond a direct hit. Modern developments in bullet-proof composite materials like kevlar have started

10848-473: The town of Cassino. The main attack eventually commenced just after last light with the 28th (Maori) Battalion tasked to cross the Rapido River and to seize the station south of Cassino town, to establish a bridgehead for the corps armour to move into the town and to the foot of the Cassino massif—the attack starting at 21:30. By dawn, German 10th Army artillery had stopped the 28th Battalion advance on

10961-518: The town, the enemy [the NZ Division] fought our foremost posts to a standstill by weight of fire and then occupied the station after hand-to-hand fighting ... [but] the centre of the town is still in our hands." By the afternoon of 19 March, it was evident that no further progress would be made by the NZ Division in Cassino town—the German paratrooper line held firm, with machine gun, mortar and sniper fire and continued counter-attacks to reduce

11074-531: The tribal host assembled from farmers and hunters with only passing acquaintance with warfare and masses of lightly armed and ill-trained militia put up as a last ditch effort. Kushite king Taharqa enjoyed military success in the Near East as a result of his efforts to strengthen the army through daily training in long-distance running. In medieval times the foot soldiers varied from peasant levies to semi-permanent companies of mercenaries, foremost among them

11187-557: The two assaults at Monte Cassino, the New Zealand Division was withdrawn and when redeployed found itself in the high Apennine sector north east of Cassino under the British Eighth Army's X Corps , commanded by Lieutenant-General Richard L. McCreery . When in May 1944 the Allies launched their final and successful offensive on the Cassino front, X Corps was employed in a holding role making diversionary feints and anchoring

11300-613: The weapon speciality; examples of infantry units that retained such names are the Royal Irish Fusiliers and the Grenadier Guards . Dragoons were created as mounted infantry , with horses for travel between battles; they were still considered infantry since they dismounted before combat. However, if light cavalry was lacking in an army, any available dragoons might be assigned their duties; this practice increased over time, and dragoons eventually received all

11413-452: The weapons and training as both infantry and cavalry, and could be classified as both. Conversely, starting about the mid-19th century, regular cavalry have been forced to spend more of their time dismounted in combat due to the ever-increasing effectiveness of enemy infantry firearms. Thus most cavalry transitioned to mounted infantry. As with grenadiers, the dragoon and cavalry designations can be retained long after their horses, such as in

11526-468: The withdrawing Axis forces took place at Nofaliya . The division then remained in reserve in the Nofaliya area until early January, when it was ordered forward to take part in the final push through Buerat and advance the remaining 200 miles (320 km) to Tripoli. The operation began on 15 January; by 21 January, Tripoli was less than 50 miles (80 km) ahead. However, skilful delaying tactics allowed

11639-421: Was able to negotiate the terms of his service in the second half of the war. As a result, 2nd New Zealand Division would fight some of its hardest battles without its most experienced veterans." Following the Axis surrender in Tunisia the 2nd New Zealand Division was withdrawn to refit and therefore took no part in the Allied invasion of Sicily . The refit included the conversion of the 4th Infantry Brigade into

11752-530: Was briefly renamed Anzac Corps. On 6 April, the Germans launched their invasion, commencing the Battle of Greece . They overwhelmed the British and Commonwealth forces and forcing them to retreat to Crete and Egypt by 6 April. The last New Zealand troops had evacuated mainland Greece by 25 April, having sustained losses of 291 men killed, 387 seriously wounded, and 1,826 men captured in this campaign. Since most 2nd New Zealand Division troops had evacuated to Crete from mainland Greece, they were very much involved in

11865-458: Was decided that New Zealand should provide an Expeditionary Force . Initially a 'Special Force' was to be raised, of one battalion in each of the three military districts, but the requirement was then raised, to that of a division. Major-General Bernard C. Freyberg , of the British Army, but with strong New Zealand connections, was appointed as General Officer Commanding . This force became known as 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) and

11978-470: Was intended to not only penetrate the Gustav Line, but to draw away the German forces to further alleviate the pressure on the VI Corps at Anzio. The bombing started at 08:00 and continued till 12:00—dropping an equivalent of four tons per acre. By 12:30, an 890 gun artillery bombardment started, which would continue for eight hours. The 6th NZ Brigade lead the attack, assaulting Cassino town, supported by

12091-537: Was launched on 26 March and by 28 March the main Axis forces on the Mareth Line had been forced to withdraw by the flanking threat from the advancing British 1st Armoured and New Zealand Divisions. At the end of Supercharge II , the New Zealand Corps was broken up and its elements allocated between X and XXX Corps. On 30 March, Montgomery sent the following message to Freyberg : My very best congratulations to NZ Corps and 10 Corps on splendid results achieved by

12204-570: Was not coined until 1837. In modern usage, foot soldiers of any era are now considered infantry and infantrymen. From the mid-18th century until 1881, the British Army named its infantry as numbered regiments "of Foot" to distinguish them from cavalry and dragoon regiments (see List of Regiments of Foot ). Infantry equipped with special weapons were often named after that weapon, such as grenadiers for their grenades , or fusiliers for their fusils . These names can persist long after

12317-399: Was not common), similar to modern sections (squads) , companies , and regiments . The training of the infantry has differed drastically over time and from place to place. The cost of maintaining an army in fighting order and the seasonal nature of warfare precluded large permanent armies. The antiquity saw everything from the well-trained and motivated citizen armies of Greece and Rome,

12430-465: Was obliged to maintain a relatively small forward force because of the difficulties caused by a very extended supply line and the New Zealand Division was therefore held in reserve at Bardia . At the Battle of El Agheila, the New Zealand Division was brought forward with supporting tanks to conduct an outflanking movement while two divisions made a frontal attack. The battle started on the night of 11 December. Looking to preserve his forces, Rommel commenced

12543-691: Was still committed against the Italian Army and within Albania . The forces available to face the expected German attack in Macedonia were mostly newly formed divisions manned with reservists, lacking heavy weapons and equipment. At the same time, the Greek GHQ did not agree with the British as to the deployment of its forces, being unwilling to abandon all of northern Greece in favour of the shorter Vermion Mountains – Haliacmon River line favoured by

12656-465: Was the key to the ultimate success in the war. As part of the solution, Alexander withdrew the 2nd New Zealand Division from the Eighth Army line to establish a small Army Group Reserve with a view to reinforcing the Fifth Army front. Clark was initially apprehensive of making use of an ex-British Eighth Army Division. As an American, he was even more apprehensive of having Freyberg, whom he considered

12769-418: Was to have your 18 NZ Armd Regt under my command. They fought well and nothing was too difficult for them to tackle. In fact they got across a large stretch of country which the going map said was impassable to tanks ... As the main attack advanced, X Corps with the New Zealand Division moved forward to maintain protection of Eighth Army's right flank. After the fall of Rome in early June X Corps formed

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