215-981: The Newburgh Conspiracy was a failed apparent threat by leaders of the Continental Army in March 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War . The Army's commander, George Washington , successfully calmed the soldiers and helped secure back pay. The conspiracy may have been instigated by members in the Congress of the Confederation , which circulated an anonymous letter in the army camp at Newburgh, New York , on March 10, 1783. Soldiers were unhappy that they had not been paid for some time and that pensions that had been promised remained unfunded. The letter suggested that they should take unspecified action against Congress to resolve
430-654: A national bank . Despite the opposition of Madison and other Southern leaders, Congress approved the establishment of the First Bank of the United States in 1791. While Morris served in Congress, a new political elite emerged in Philadelphia. These new leaders generally respected Morris, but most did not look to him for leadership. With Morris playing little active role, they called a convention that revised
645-687: A "healthy sound negro" as a reward. The officers of both the Continental Army and the state militias were typically yeoman farmers with a sense of honor and status and an ideological commitment to oppose the policies of the British Crown . The enlisted men were very different. They came from the working class or minority groups (English, Ulster Protestant, Black or of African descent). They were motivated to volunteer by specific contracts that promised bounty money; regular pay at good wages; food, clothing, and medical care; companionship; and
860-686: A Commissary General of Purchases, with four deputies, and a Commissary General of Issues, with three deputies. William Buchanan was head of the Purchase Department (1777–1778), Jeremiah Wadsworth (1778–1779), and Ephraim Blaine (1779–1781). In 1780, the department became subordinated to the Superintendent of Finance , although Blaine retained his position. Charles Stewart served as Commissary General of Issues (1777–1782). The responsibility for procuring arms and ammunition at first rested with various committees of Congress. In 1775,
1075-575: A Continental Army for purposes of common defense, adopting the forces already in place outside Boston (22,000 troops) and New York (5,000). It also raised the first ten companies of Continental troops on a one-year enlistment, riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia to be used as light infantry . The Pennsylvania riflemen became the 1st Continental Regiment in January 1776. On June 15, 1775, Congress elected by unanimous vote George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, who accepted and served throughout
1290-606: A boycott of British goods. In Philadelphia, Willing, Charles Thomson , and John Dickinson took the lead in calling for a congress of all the colonies to coordinate a response to British tax policies. Morris was not elected to the First Continental Congress , which convened in Philadelphia in August 1774, but he frequently met with the congressional delegates and befriended colonial leaders such as George Washington and John Jay . Morris generally sympathized with
1505-453: A captain. Field officers usually included a colonel, a lieutenant colonel, and a major. A regimental staff was made up of an adjutant , quartermaster , surgeon, surgeon's mate , paymaster , and chaplain . Infantry regiments were often called simply regiments or battalions. The regiment's fighting strength consisted of a single battalion of 728 officers and enlisted men at full strength. Cavalry and artillery regiments were organized in
1720-462: A committee to draft a suitable resolution. Approved by virtually the entire assembly, the resolution expressed "unshaken confidence" in Congress, and "disdain" and "abhorrence" for the irregular proposals published earlier in the week. Historian Richard Kohn believes the entire meeting was carefully stage-managed by Washington, Knox, and their supporters. The only voice raised in opposition was that of Colonel Timothy Pickering , who criticized members of
1935-444: A compromise agreement that it had previously rejected: it funded some of the pay arrears, and granted soldiers five years of full pay instead of a lifetime pension of half pay . The motivations of numerous actors in these events are debated. Most historians say that the plot was led by civilians. Their goal was forcing Congress to make good on its long-standing promises to the soldiers. Some historians allege that serious consideration
2150-768: A convention in Philadelphia in May 1787 to amend the Articles. The Pennsylvania state legislature sent a delegation consisting of Morris, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, George Clymer , Thomas Mifflin , Jared Ingersoll , and Ben Franklin to the Philadelphia Convention . With the exception of Franklin (who avoided aligning with either political faction in Pennsylvania), all of the Pennsylvania delegates were closely aligned with Morris's Republican faction,
2365-683: A disastrous choice for managing American privateers in Europe, as Thomas engaged in binge drinking and mismanaged funds. In October 1776, at the urging of Morris and Benjamin Franklin, Congress authorized the appointment of two envoys charged with seeking a formal treaty of alliance with France; ultimately, Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee were appointed as those envoys. Along with Silas Deane, Franklin would help to greatly expand arms shipments from France and Spain , but Lee proved to be completely incompetent in his efforts to gain support from Prussia and
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#17327731215002580-482: A drop-off in American trade, caused in part by British naval operations. In December 1782, shortly after the apparent defeat of the proposed amendment to allow the national government to levy a tariff, General Alexander McDougall led a delegation that presented a petition for immediate payment on behalf of the Continental Army. While Morris helped temporarily defuse the crisis by offering the soldiers one month's pay,
2795-546: A fact that General Daniel Morgan integrated into his strategy at the Battle of Cowpens and used to fool the British in 1781. The financial responsibility for providing pay, food, shelter, clothing, arms, and other equipment to specific units was assigned to states as part of the establishment of these units. States differed in how well they lived up to these obligations. There were constant funding issues and morale problems as
3010-611: A factor in his life. After the Pennsylvania legislature stripped the Bank of North America of its charter, Morris won election to the state legislature and helped restore the bank's charter. Meanwhile, the United States suffered a sustained recession after the end of the Revolutionary War, caused by the lingering debt burden and new restrictions on trade imposed by the European powers. Some members of Congress, including those on
3225-589: A field organization, usually known as the Military Branch of the Commissariat of Military Stores, was made responsible for distribution and care of ordnance in the field. In 1777, Congress established a Commissary General of Military Stores. Known as the Civil Branch, this organization was responsible for handling arsenals , laboratories , and some procurement under the general supervision of
3440-411: A full partner in the newly renamed firm of Willing Morris & Company. Morris's shipping firm was just one of many such firms operating in Philadelphia, but Willing, Morris & Co. pursued several innovative strategies. The firm pooled with other shipping firms to insure vessels, aggressively expanded trade with India, and underwrote government projects through bonds and promissory notes. Ships of
3655-417: A funding scheme turned in part on the issue of the pension. Twice the nationalists urged the body to adopt a commuted pension scheme (one that would end after a fixed time, rather than lifetime), but it was rejected both times. After the second rejection on February 4, a plan to further raise tensions began to take shape. Four days later, Colonel Brooks was dispatched back to Newburgh with instructions to gain
3870-477: A great deal for the Revolution, just as much as any of them. These, of course, were his fellow officers, most having worked closely with him for several years. Many of those present were moved to tears, and with this act, the conspiracy collapsed as he read the letter. He then left the room, and General Knox and others offered resolutions reaffirming their loyalty. Knox and Colonel Brooks were then appointed to
4085-448: A group of Dutch land speculators. These early successes encouraged Morris to pursue greater profits through increasingly large and risky land acquisitions. On March 7, 1791, Morris obtained title to a lot from John Dickinson and wife; on March 9, 1793, the site was surveyed; it wasn't until 1794 he began construction of a mansion on Chestnut Street in Philadelphia designed by architect of Washington, D.C., Pierre Charles L'Enfant ; it
4300-503: A land company led by John Nicholson, the comptroller general of Pennsylvania, beginning a deep business partnership between Nicholson and Morris. Later in 1793, Morris, Nicholson, and James Greenleaf jointly purchased thousands of lots in the recently established District of Columbia . They subsequently purchased millions of acres in Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas; in each case, they went into debt to make
4515-405: A large army of 10,000 men was no longer needed, and the men were eager to go home. Congress gave each soldier three months pay, but since they had no funds Robert Morris issued $ 800,000 in personal notes to the soldiers. Many soldiers sold these notes to speculators, some even before they left camp, in order to be able to make their way home. Over the next several months, much of the Continental Army
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#17327731215004730-598: A leader of the Nationalist faction, an informal group of American leaders who favored a stronger national government. He also had effective control over foreign affairs until Robert R. Livingston was appointed as Secretary of Foreign Affairs later in the year. In September 1781, Morris reluctantly agreed to serve as the Agent of Marine , giving him civilian leadership of the Continental Navy. Congress filled
4945-440: A letter from a member of Congress to read to the officers. He gazed upon it and fumbled with it without speaking. He then took a pair of reading glasses from his pocket, which were new; few of the men had seen him wear them. He then said: Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray but almost blind in the service of my country. This caused the men to realize that Washington had sacrificed
5160-426: A likely candidate), was compelled to admit this unlikely given the speed at which the second letter appeared. The March 15 meeting was held in the "New Building" or "Temple", a 40 by 70-foot (12 by 21 m) building at the camp . After Gates opened the meeting, Washington entered the building to everyone's surprise. He asked to speak to the officers, and the stunned Gates relinquished the floor. Washington could tell by
5375-496: A measure to provide pensions to Continental Army officers. He formed a close working relationship with Gouverneur Morris (no relation), a young New York congressman who shared many of Robert Morris's views. The following month, Morris returned with Congress to Philadelphia, which had been evacuated by the British. Morris did not resume his wide array of duties in Congress, seeking instead to wind down his projects so that he could focus on business. In late 1778, Morris won election to
5590-421: A mechanism for raising revenue, Congress repeatedly issued paper money , leading to rampant inflation. By 1781, the U.S. faced an unremitting financial crisis, which was underscored by the January 1781 Pennsylvania Line Mutiny , in which ten poorly fed, unpaid Continental Army regiments demanded better conditions from Congress. Though the mutiny was put down, it convinced Congress to implement reforms that created
5805-818: A member of the Pennsylvania legislature, the Second Continental Congress , and the United States Senate , and was one of only two people who signed the Declaration of Independence , the Articles of Confederation , and the United States Constitution (The other being Roger Sherman ). From 1781 to 1784, he served as the Superintendent of Finance of the United States , becoming known as the "Financier of
6020-465: A moment preparing for events." Historian Richard Kohn is of the opinion that the purpose of these communications was not to foment a coup or military action against Congress or the states, but to use the specter of a recalcitrant army's refusal to disband as a political weapon against the antinationalists. The nationalists were also aware of a significant cadre of lower-level officers who were unhappy with General Washington's leadership and had gravitated to
6235-513: A mutiny by assuring the soldiers that they would eventually be paid. In the aftermath of the near-mutiny, Morris denied that he had played any role in fomenting insurrection. Nonetheless, most historians believe that Morris was one of three leaders of the " Newburgh Conspiracy , along with Alexander Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris. Jack N. Rakove emphasizes the leadership of Robert Morris. However, this conclusion overlooks several exculpatory facts: 1) Morris supplied $ 800,000 in his own notes to pay
6450-493: A national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea. On April 23, 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of a colonial army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar but smaller forces. On June 14, 1775, the Second Continental Congress decided to proceed with the establishment of
6665-591: A native of England but from principle am American in this dispute." While his partner, Thomas Willing, served in various governmental positions, Morris declined to serve in any public office other than that of port warden (a position he shared with six other individuals), and he generally let Willing act as the public face of the firm. In early 1774, in response to the Intolerable Acts , many colonists in British North America began calling for
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6880-610: A new state constitutional convention frustrated by Joseph Reed and others, Morris and James Wilson founded the Republican Society, a political club devoted to implementing a new state constitution. The Republican Society favored a bicameral legislature, a state executive with veto power, an independent judiciary, and an end to loyalty oaths to the state government. Other prominent Pennsylvanians, including Wilson, Benjamin Rush , Thomas Mifflin , and Charles Thomson, supported
7095-511: A number of ad hoc committees . In June 1776 a five-member standing committee , the Board of War and Ordnance , was established in order to replace the ad hoc committees. The five members who formed the Board fully participated in the plenary activities of Congress as well as in other committees and were unable to fully engage in the administrative leadership of the Continental Army. A new Board of War
7310-514: A reflection of Republican strength in the state legislature. Many of Morris's Nationalist allies from other states, including Hamilton, James Madison , John Dickinson, and Washington, would also attend the convention. With Franklin ill, Morris opened the proceedings of the Philadelphia Convention on May 25. His motion to nominate Washington as chairman of the convention was backed by a unanimous vote. Morris consistently attended
7525-521: A resolution passed by the Second Continental Congress , meeting in Philadelphia after the war's outbreak. The Continental Army was created to coordinate military efforts of the colonies in the war against the British , who sought to maintain control over the American colonies. General George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and maintained this position throughout
7740-463: A revenue stream. When it met with McDougall on January 13, the general painted a stark picture of the discontent at Newburgh; Colonel Brooks opined that "a disappointment might throw [the army] into blind extremities." When Congress met on January 22 to debate the committee's report, Robert Morris shocked the body by tendering his resignation, heightening tension. The Congressional leadership immediately moved to keep Morris's resignation secret. Debate on
7955-421: A significant proportion of the debt it represented 45 ". Holker's partners will therefore suffer considerable losses and they will fight for years to obtain compensation, in vain. Chaumont, on the verge of ruin, will have to request a decree preventing its French creditors from seizing its assets. After his resignation, Holker faced two challenges: settling his accounts with Robert Morris and bouncing back to absorb
8170-409: A similar manner. A company of cavalry was frequently called a troop. An artillery company contained specialized soldiers, such as bombardiers , gunners , and matrosses . A continental cavalry regiment had a nominal strength of 280 officers and men, but the actual strength was usually less than 150 men and even fewer horses. Artificers were civilian or military mechanics and artisans employed by
8385-421: A successor for Morris, Congress established the three-member Board of Treasury, consisting of Arthur Lee, William Livingston , and Samuel Osgood . In 1778–1779 Morris had attempted to strengthen out the accounts of the old Commercial Committee but had to give it up; he stated in answer to Paine "the accounts of Willing and Morris with the committee had been partially settled, but were still partially open, because
8600-658: A supply of new slaves to compensate for the ongoing labor shortage. While Morris was a junior partner in the firm and Willing was pursuing a political career, Willing, Morris & Co. co-signed a petition calling for the repeal of Pennsylvania's tariff on imported slaves. In 1762, approximately 200 slaves were imported into Philadelphia, at the height of Pennsylvania's involvement in the Atlantic slave trade ; most were brought in by Rhode Island merchants Mark Anthony DeWolf , Aaron Lopez , and Jacob Rivera . As part of their commercial operations, Willing, Morris & Co. engaged in
8815-521: A teenage trainee to become a key agent in Willing's firm. Morris traveled to Caribbean ports to expand the firm's business, and he gained a knowledge of trading and the various currencies used to exchange goods. He also befriended Thomas Willing , the oldest son of Charles Willing who was two years older than Morris and who, like Morris, had split his life between England and British North America. Charles Willing died in 1754, and in 1757 Thomas made Morris
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9030-627: A transfer of frontier forts with Major General Frederick Haldimand collapsed, however, the British maintained control over them, as they would into the 1790s. That failure and the realization that most of the remaining infantrymen's enlistments were due to expire by June 1784 led Washington to order Knox, his choice as the commander of the peacetime army, to discharge all but 500 infantry and 100 artillerymen before winter set in. The former regrouped as 1st American Regiment , under Colonel Henry Jackson of Massachusetts. The single artillery company, New Yorkers under Major John Doughty , came from remnants of
9245-457: A waggoner, rather than a regular soldier. However, many freed slaves and slaves who enlisted with their owners' permission were granted pensions such as in the case of Jeffrey Brace , who was granted pension in 1821. The main long-term result of the Newburgh affair was a strong reaffirmation of the principle of civilian control of the military, and banishing any possibility of a coup as outside
9460-642: A younger half-brother, Thomas, whom Morris's father had sired out of wedlock shortly before his own death. Thomas eventually became a partner in Morris's shipping firm. Mary's brother, William White , was ordained as an Episcopal priest and served as the Senate chaplain . In 1781, Morris purchased a home on Market Street that was two blocks north of Independence Hall , the seat of the Second Continental Congress. He gained clear title to
9675-460: The 2nd Continental Artillery Regiment . Congress issued a proclamation on October 18, 1783, which approved Washington's reductions. On November 2, Washington, then at Rockingham near Rocky Hill, New Jersey , released his Farewell Orders issued to the Armies of the United States of America to the Philadelphia newspapers for nationwide distribution to the furloughed men. In the message, he thanked
9890-533: The Anglican Christ Church , which was also attended by Benjamin Franklin , Thomas Willing, and other leading citizens of Philadelphia. The Morris household employed several domestic workers and retained several slaves. In addition to the children he had with Mary White, Morris fathered a daughter, Polly, out of wedlock around 1763. Morris supported Polly financially and remained in contact with her throughout her adult life. Morris also supported
10105-528: The Bank of North America , the first congressionally chartered national bank to operate in the United States. Morris believed that the national government would be unable to achieve financial stability without the power to levy taxes and tariffs , but he was unable to convince all thirteen states to agree to an amendment to the Articles of Confederation. Frustrated by the weakness of the national government, Morris resigned as Superintendent of Finance in 1784. Morris
10320-480: The Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 48,000 men overall and 13,000 troops in one area. The turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–1777, and longer enlistments were approved. As the new country (not yet fully independent) had no money, the government agreed to give grants to
10535-601: The Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company chartered April 10, 1792. Morris was president of both companies; he was also involved with a steam engine company and launched a hot air balloon from his garden on Market Street. He had the first iron rolling mill in America. His icehouse was the model for one Washington installed at Mount Vernon. He backed the new Chestnut Street Theater and had a greenhouse where his staff cultivated lemon trees. In early 1793, Morris purchased shares in
10750-732: The Erie Triangle . Along with an agent of the Holland Land Company, Aaron Burr , Robert Morris, and other individual and institutional investors, he formed the Pennsylvania Population Company. This front organization purchased all 390 parcels of land in the Erie Triangle. Nicholson was impeached in 1794 for his role in the company. However, Morris severely overextended himself financially. He had borrowed to speculate in real estate in
10965-668: The Federalist Party . During and after his service in the Senate, Morris went deeply into debt through speculating on land, leading into the Panic of 1796–1797 . Unable to pay his creditors, he was confined in the Prune Street debtors' apartment adjacent to Walnut Street Prison from 1798 to 1801. After being released from prison, he lived a quiet, private life in a modest home in Philadelphia until his death in 1806. Morris
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#173277312150011180-572: The Habsburg monarchy . In early December 1776, Washington's army was forced to retreat across the Delaware River and into Pennsylvania, and most members of Congress temporarily left Philadelphia. Morris was one of few delegates to remain in the city, and Congress appointed Morris and two other delegates to "execute Continental business" in its absence. Morris frequently corresponded with Washington, and he provided supplies that helped enable
11395-636: The Model Treaty , which was designed to serve as a template for relations with foreign countries. Unlike Britain's mercantile trade policies, the Model Treaty emphasized the importance of free trade . In March 1776, after the death of Samuel Ward , Morris was named as the chairman of the Secret Committee of Trade. He established a network of agents, based in both the colonies and various foreign ports, charged with procuring supplies for
11610-587: The Phelps and Gorham Purchase in western New York. He realized a substantial profit the following year when he sold the land to The Pulteney Association , a group of British land speculators led by Sir William Johnstone Pulteney . Morris used the money from this sale to purchase the remainder of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase, then turned around and sold much of that land to the Holland Land Company ,
11825-580: The Potomac River ; until construction of that capital was completed, Philadelphia would serve as the nation's temporary capital. With the backing of all four leaders, the Compromise of 1790 , as it became known, was approved by Congress. That same year, Morris and Maclay helped secure Pennsylvania's control of the Erie Triangle , which provided the state with access to the Great Lakes . In
12040-524: The Southern theater of the war, while leaving a large force garrisoned at New York City . In August 1781, Morris met with General Washington and the comte de Rochambeau , who were planning a joint Franco-American operation against the British forces. Morris redirected government funds to purchase supplies for Washington's march against British forces in Virginia, and he pleaded with state governments and
12255-622: The United States Army by their resolution of June 3, 1784. Although Congress declined on May 12 to make a decision on the peace establishment, it did address the need for some troops to remain on duty until the British evacuated New York City and several frontier posts. The delegates told Washington to use men enlisted for fixed terms as temporary garrisons. A detachment of those men from West Point reoccupied New York without incident on November 25. When Steuben's effort in July to negotiate
12470-547: The convention held to debate ratification of the Constitution. Due to a dispute with a business partner, Morris did not attend the ratification convention, which voted to ratify the Constitution in December 1787. By the end of 1788, the Constitution had been ratified by enough states to take effect. In September 1788, the Pennsylvania legislature elected Robert Morris and William Maclay , both of whom were aligned with
12685-564: The tobacco trade. Two years later, Morris's father sent him to Philadelphia, then the most populous city in British North America , where Morris lived under the care of his father's friend, Charles Greenway. Greenway arranged for Morris to become an apprentice at the shipping and banking firm of Philadelphia merchant Charles Willing . In 1750, Robert Morris Sr. died from an infected wound, leaving much of his substantial estate to his son. Morris impressed Willing and rose from
12900-467: The "Minister of Injustice", he submitted his resignation in early 1783, but Hamilton and other Nationalists convinced him to stay in office. As of January 1, 1783, the public debt was $ 42 million of which 18.77 percent was foreign debt and 81.23 percent was owned at home. In a report to the President of Congress Morris wrote: of which The rest being unliquidated debts, etc., interest. At roughly
13115-507: The 1765 Stamp Act . By 1775 he was the richest man in America. After the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , he helped procure arms and ammunition for the revolutionary cause, and in late 1775 he was chosen as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. As a member of Congress, he served on the Secret Committee of Trade, which handled the procurement of supplies, the Committee of Correspondence , which handled foreign affairs, and
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#173277312150013330-513: The Board of Treasury, continued to favor amendments to the Articles of Confederation, but the states still refused to authorize major changes to the Articles. In 1786, Morris was one of five Pennsylvania delegates selected to attend the Annapolis Convention , where delegates discussed ways to reform the Articles of Confederation. Though Morris ultimately declined to attend the convention, the delegates convinced Congress to authorize
13545-581: The Board of War. Later in the war, a Surveyor of Ordnance was made responsible for inspecting foundries , magazines , ordnance shops, and field ordnance. In July 1777, the Board of War was authorized to purchase artillery. Congress created a hospital department in July 1775 as a part of the Continental Army's administrative structure. It came under the Director General of the Hospital Department , chosen by Congress but serving under
13760-423: The British required the discipline and organization of a modern military. As a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units. The Continental Army's forces included several successive armies or establishments: Military affairs were at first managed by the Continental Congress in plenary session , although specific matters were prepared by
13975-559: The Commander-in-Chief, and was staffed by four surgeons , an apothecary , twenty surgeon's mates , a nurse for every ten patients, a matron to supervise the nurses, a clerk, and two storekeepers. The department was reorganized in 1777; deputy director generals were added to the administrative structure; commissaries of hospitals were established to provide food and forage; and apothecary generals were established to procure and distribute medicines. The first director general
14190-475: The Continental Army has unfortunately no uniforms in 1775, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able to distinguish the commissioned officers from the privates, it is desired that some badge of distinction be immediately provided; for instance that the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and the subalterns green." In 1776, captains were to have buff or white cockades. Later on in
14405-636: The Continental victory at the Battle of Trenton . After the Continental Army was defeated in the September 1777 Battle of Brandywine , Congress fled west from Philadelphia; Morris and his family went to live at the estate they had recently purchased in Manheim, Pennsylvania . Morris obtained a leave of absence in late 1777, but he spent much of his time defending himself against attacks regarding alleged mismanagement and financial improprieties levied by
14620-493: The Continental war effort. In late February 1776, Americans learned that the British Parliament had passed the Prohibitory Act , which declared that all American shipping was subject to seizure by British ships. Unlike many other congressional leaders, Morris continued to hope for reconciliation with Britain, since he believed that all-out war still lacked the strong support of a majority of Americans and would prove financially ruinous. In June 1776, due largely to frustration with
14835-404: The Federalists, as the state's first representatives in the United States Senate . In the country's first presidential election , Washington was elected as the President of the United States . Washington offered the position of Secretary of the Treasury to Morris, but Morris declined the offer, instead suggesting Alexander Hamilton for the position. In the Senate, Morris pressed for many of
15050-399: The Freeman’s Journal, attacking Morris. Blaming Morris had all the ear-marks of an early misinformation campaign designed to shift the blame for a failed and unpopular mutiny. Frustrated by his defeat in the tariff battle and the failure of states to provide adequate funding, Morris thought he was being forced to run up debts that the states were unwilling to pay. Writing that he would not be
15265-407: The French government for further funding, with the final $ 20,000 needed coming from Morris's longtime collaborator, Haym Salomon . At the October 1781 Battle of Yorktown , Washington forced the surrender of the British army under the command of General Cornwallis . After the Battle of Yorktown, Britain essentially abandoned its campaign on land, but the naval war continued as Britain sought to cut
15480-514: The Gates group has been the subject of some debate: Kohn argues that they were intent on organizing some form of direct action (although he disclaims the idea that this would necessarily take the form of a traditional coup d'état ), while historian Paul David Nelson claims Kohn's thesis is circumstantial and poorly supported by primary materials. A letter written by General Gates in June 1783 illustrates
15695-732: The Marine Committee, which oversaw the Continental Navy . Morris was a leading member of Congress until he resigned in 1778. Out of office, Morris refocused on his merchant career and won election to the Pennsylvania Assembly , where he became a leader of the "Republican" faction that sought alterations to the Pennsylvania Constitution . Facing a difficult financial situation in the ongoing Revolutionary War , in 1781 Congress established
15910-429: The Nationalist faction, and they all cooperated to enhance the power of the national government. In mid-1782, Congress established standing committees to provide oversight to the executive departments; Morris supported the congressional reorganization, but to his dismay, his longtime foe Arthur Lee became the chairman of the committee overseeing the finance department. Morris pursued an array of reforms designed to boost
16125-405: The Newburgh camp that the army would refuse to disband until its demands were met. On the morning of March 10 an unsigned letter began circulating in the army camp. Later acknowledged to be written by Major John Armstrong, Jr. , aide to General Gates, the letter decried the army's condition and the lack of Congressional support, and called upon the army to send Congress an ultimatum. Published at
16340-529: The Northern Continental Army. In addition to the Continental Army regulars, state militia units were assigned for short-term service and fought in campaigns throughout the war. Sometimes the militia units operated independently of the Continental Army, but often local militias were called out to support and augment the Continental Army regulars during campaigns. The militia troops developed a reputation for being prone to premature retreats,
16555-472: The Public Credit , which Hamilton submitted in 1790. Hamilton proposed to fully fund all federal debts and assume all state debts, and to pay for those debts by issuing new federal bonds. Hamilton argued that these measures would restore confidence in public credit and help to revitalize the economy, but opponents attacked his proposals as unfairly beneficial to the speculators who had purchased many of
16770-487: The Quartermaster General. Thomas Mifflin served as Quartermaster General (1775–1776 and 1776–1778), Stephen Moylan (1776), Nathanael Green (1778–1780), and Timothy Pickering (from 1780). Congress also created the position of Commissary General of Stores and Provisions directly responsible to Congress, with Joseph Trumbull as the first incumbent. In 1777, Congress divided the department into two,
16985-545: The Republican Society's goals, but Morris became the de facto leader of the faction that became known as the Republicans. Meanwhile, those who favored maintaining the state constitution became known as the Constitutionalists. Due to rising inflation , in mid-1779 the Constitutionalists established a committee to implement price controls ; numerous Philadelphia merchants were arrested for allegedly violating
17200-578: The Revolution." Along with Alexander Hamilton and Albert Gallatin , he is widely regarded as one of the founders of the financial system of the United States. Born in Liverpool , Morris was brought to North America by his father when he was 13 years old, quickly becoming a partner in a successful shipping firm based in Philadelphia . In the aftermath of the French and Indian War , Morris joined with other merchants in opposing British tax policies such as
17415-593: The United States are indebted for their republican form of government solely to the firm and determined republicanism of George Washington at this time." Skeen notes that the event has served to significantly burnish Washington's reputation. According to a reviewer of A Crisis of Peace: George Washington, the Newburgh Conspiracy, and the Fate of the American Revolution, (2019) by David Head,
17630-478: The United States off from its sources of trade. Months after the Battle of Yorktown, Morris issued the "Report on Public Credit," an ambitious economic plan calling for the full payment of the country's war debt through new revenue measures. It included a head tax on slaves in the various states, but above all, he pushed for a federal tariff of five percent on all imported goods, which would require an amendment to
17845-413: The alleged conspirators. He notes, for example, that there is ample evidence suggesting mutinous sentiments were not obviously circulating in the Newburgh camp between the arrivals of Brooks and Stewart; Kohn counters that the relative quiet in camp masked significant undercurrents of unhappiness. David Cobb , who served on Washington's staff during the affair, wrote in 1825, "I have ever considered that
18060-429: The army to provide services. They included blacksmiths , coopers , carpenters , harnessmakers , and wheelwrights . In June 1775, Congress created the position of Quartermaster General , after the British example. He was charged with opening and maintaining the lines of advance and retreat, laying out camps and assigning quarters. His responsibilities included furnishing the army with materiel and supplies, although
18275-484: The army leadership's agreement with the proposed nationalist plan. The army leadership was also urged by Gouverneur Morris to use its influence with state legislatures to secure their approval for needed changes. On February 12, McDougall sent a letter (signed with the pseudonym Brutus ) to General Knox suggesting that the army might have to mutiny by refusing to disband until it was paid. He specifically told Knox to not make any direct steps, but that he should "not lose
18490-551: The assembly for hypocritically condemning the anonymous addresses that only days before they had been praising. General Washington had sent copies of the anonymous addresses to Congress. This "alarming intelligence" (as James Madison termed it) arrived while Congress was debating the pension issues. Nationalist leaders orchestrated the creation of a committee to respond to the news, which was deliberately populated with members opposed to any sort of pension payment. The pressure worked on Connecticut representative Eliphalet Dyer , one of
18705-521: The bank provided a boost to Morris's popularity, and in October 1780, he won election to the state legislature. William Bingham , rumored to be the richest man in America after the Revolutionary War , purchased 9.5% of the available shares of the Bank of North America. The greatest share, however, 63.3%, was purchased on behalf of the United States government by Robert Morris, using a gift in
18920-492: The beginning of his bankruptcy began with the failure of John Warder & Co. of Dublin and Donald and Burton of London in the spring of 1793. Morris was deeply involved in land speculation, especially after the Revolutionary War; (See Phelps and Gorham Purchase of 1791 above); on April 22, 1794, Morris entered into an association called the Asylum Company with John Nicholson, [who had served as Comptroller-General of
19135-490: The blending of persons from every colony into "one patriotic band of Brothers" had been a major accomplishment, and he urged the veterans to continue this devotion in civilian life. Washington said farewell to his remaining officers on December 4 at Fraunces Tavern in New York City. On December 23 he appeared in Congress, then sitting at Annapolis, and returned his commission as commander-in-chief : "Having now finished
19350-423: The book: casts doubt on the existence of any conspiracy, at least in the sense of an organized challenge to Washington’s command of the army. Head believes the appearance of conspiracy was the product of gossip and private conversations among officers and members of Congress intent on using the officers’ demands to promote a stronger national government. If Head discounts the conspiracy of legend, he makes clear that
19565-472: The boycott. In April 1775, the American Revolutionary War broke out following the Battles of Lexington and Concord . Shortly thereafter, the Second Continental Congress began meeting in Philadelphia , and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army . The Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly established the twenty-five member Committee of Safety to supervise defenses, and Morris
19780-456: The camp of Major General Horatio Gates , a longtime Washington rival. These officers, Kohn believes, could be used by the nationalists to stage something that resembled a coup if necessary. The arrival on February 13 of rumors that a preliminary peace agreement had been reached in Paris heightened the sense of urgency among the nationalists. Alexander Hamilton wrote a letter to General Washington
19995-617: The chief supplier of gunpowder to the Continental Army. Morris became increasingly focused on political affairs rather than business, and in October 1775 he won election to the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly. Later in the year, the Provincial Assembly elected Morris as a delegate to Congress. In Congress, Morris aligned with the less radical faction of delegates that protested British policies but continued to favor reconciliation with Britain. He
20210-649: The city after the riot, and popular anger at merchants resulted in Morris's defeat in his campaign for re-election to the state legislature. Out of public office for the first time since the start of the American Revolution, Morris focused on expanding his shipping business. He partnered with several out-of-state businessmen, including Jonathan Hudson of Maryland and Carter Braxton and Benjamin Harrison of Virginia, to form what biographer Charles Rappleye calls "the first national conglomerate ." In these trading ventures, Morris often provided financing and oversight but left
20425-483: The city in protest . Pennsylvania President John Dickinson refused to call out the militia (reasoning they might actually support the mutineers), and Congress decided to relocate to Princeton, New Jersey . There is circumstantial evidence that several participants in the Newburgh affair (notably Walter Stewart, John Armstrong, and Gouverneur Morris) may have played a role in this uprising as well. Although many acts have been passed since to grant pensions to veterans of
20640-586: The combined forces south to Virginia without the British commanders in New York realizing it. This resulted in the capture of the main British invasion force in the south at the Siege of Yorktown , which resulted in the American and their allied victory in the land war in North America and assured independence. A small residual force remained at West Point and some frontier outposts until Congress created
20855-511: The command of Artemas Ward . The British force in Boston was increasing by fresh arrivals. It numbered then about 10,000 men. The British controlled Boston and defended it with their fleet, but they were outnumbered and did not attempt to challenge the American control of New England. Washington selected young Henry Knox , a self-educated strategist, to take charge of the artillery from an abandoned British fort in upstate New York, and dragged across
21070-422: The committee members, and he proposed approval of a lump sum payment on March 20. The final agreement was for a five years' full pay instead of the lifetime half pay pension scheme originally promised. They received government bonds which at the time were highly speculative, but were in fact redeemed 100 cents on the dollar (i.e., at full value) by the new government in 1790. The soldiers continued to grumble, with
21285-410: The committee's orders, but Morris avoided imprisonment and emerged as a leading opponent of the committee. The price control committee proved ineffective and disbanded in September, but the following month a mob rioted and seized several Republican leaders. Morris and other Republicans sheltered at James Wilson's house, where they were rescued by Reed and a detachment of the Continental Army. Wilson fled
21500-402: The condition of troops. The first incumbent was Thomas Conway (1777–1778), followed by Baron von Steuben 1778–1784, under whom the position became that of a de facto chief of staff. The Judge Advocate General assisted the commander-in-chief with the administration of military justice , but he did not, as his modern counterpart, give legal advise. William Tudor was the first appointee. He
21715-606: The convention which, rather than amending the Articles, was intended to supplant the Articles as the new Constitution of the United States . Morris was one of just six individuals to sign both the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. Rather than seeking to block the new constitution, Congress simply forwarded it to each state to debate ratification. Morris's Republican faction, along with Federalist groups in other states, sought
21930-441: The count of how many soldiers George Washington had was delayed a little over a week. Instead of obeying their commanders and officers without question, each unit was a community that had democratically chosen its leaders. The regiments, coming from different states, were uneven in numbers. Logically, they should be evened, which would mean moving soldiers around. In the spirit of American republicanism , if George Washington separated
22145-484: The dangerous and secretive nature of a committee charged with obtaining contraband goods made it difficult for the committee to establish competitive bidding procedures for procurement contracts. In addition to his service on the Secret Committee of Trade, Morris was also appointed to the Marine Committee, which oversaw the Continental Navy , and the Committee of Secret Correspondence , which oversaw efforts to establish relations with foreign powers. From his position on
22360-673: The department, as well as state troops and militia – if released by the governor of the state. All troops under the department commander were designated as an army ; hence troops in the Northern Department were called the Northern Army , in the Southern Department the Southern Army , etc. The department commander could be field commander or he could appoint another officer to command the troops in
22575-466: The departments of war, marine, finance, and foreign affairs, each of which would be led by a departmental executive. By a unanimous vote, Congress selected Morris as the Superintendent of Finance . Morris accepted appointment as the Superintendent of Finance in May 1781, and he appointed Gouverneur Morris as his deputy. Morris soon emerged as the key economic official in the country and became
22790-665: The depreciations suffered and finally decide that Holker owes Morris the very symbolic sum of 1500 Pennsylvania pounds. In 1787, Morris was sued in Virginia by Carter Braxton for £28,257; the lawsuit continued for eight years before commissioners were appointed, then Morris appealed. Finally, Virginia's Court of Appeals led by Edmund Pendleton decided mostly in favor of Braxton before Morris was forced into bankruptcy by his own continued land speculations (although Morris as late as 1800 believed he should have won £20,000). Morris became increasingly fixated on land speculation, reaching his first major real estate deal in 1790 when he acquired much of
23005-402: The details to his partners. With national finances in tatters, Morris led a group of merchants in creating the Bank of Pennsylvania , which provided funding for the purchase of supplies by the Continental Army. The bank did not engage in the full range of modern banking activities, but it did accept deposits and provide a potential model for monetary reforms at the national level. The success of
23220-659: The direction of the Board. The Office of the Secretary at War was created in February 1781, although the Office did not start its work until Benjamin Lincoln assumed the office in October 1781. On June 15, 1775, Congress elected by unanimous vote George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, who accepted and served throughout the war without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses. Washington, as commander-in-chief,
23435-409: The disagreement: in the letter Gates writes that the purpose of the events was to pressure Congress. Kohn argues that Gates is writing after the fact to cover his tracks, while Nelson claims Gates is giving a candid account of the affair. Historian C. Edward Skeen writes that Kohn's case is weak because it relies heavily on interpretation of written statements and is not well supported by the actions of
23650-691: The disputes over officers’ pay and pensions threatened the legitimacy of the Confederation Congress and the balance of state and federal power, and that Washington sought to protect both. " Continental Army The Continental Army was the army of the United Colonies representing the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States during the American Revolutionary War . It was formed on June 14, 1775, by
23865-502: The document was ratified by the requisite number of states by the end of 1788. The Pennsylvania legislature subsequently elected Morris as one of its two inaugural representatives in the United States Senate. Morris declined Washington's offer to serve as the nation's first Treasury Secretary , instead suggesting Alexander Hamilton for the position. In the Senate, Morris supported Hamilton's economic program and aligned with
24080-609: The early 1790s, the country became increasingly polarized between the Democratic-Republican Party , led by Jefferson and Madison, and the Federalist Party , led by Hamilton. Though Morris was less focused on politics after the Compromise of 1790, he supported most of Hamilton's policies and aligned with the Federalist Party. Morris especially supported Hamilton's proposal for the establishment of
24295-417: The economy; many of the reforms were inspired by the laissez-faire economic ideas of Adam Smith . Shortly after taking office, he convinced Congress to establish the Bank of North America , the first bank to operate in the United States. Such a bank had been discussed in the months prior to Morris's appointment, but the bank itself was organized along lines laid out by Robert Morris and Gouverneur Morris. It
24510-511: The end of the war and dissolution of the Continental Army approaching, soldiers who had long been unpaid feared that the Confederation Congress would not meet previous promises concerning back pay and pensions. Congress had, in 1780, promised Continental officers a lifetime pension of half their pay when they were discharged. Financier Robert Morris had in early 1782 stopped army pay as a cost-saving measure, arguing that when
24725-438: The estate in 1785 and made it his primary residence. In 1790, President George Washington accepted Morris's offer to make the house his primary residence; Morris and his family subsequently moved to a smaller, neighboring property. By the 1790s, Morris had become close friends with Washington, and he and his wife were regular fixtures at state events thrown by the president. The President's House , as it became known, served as
24940-529: The faces of his officers, who had not been paid for quite some time, that they were quite angry and did not show the respect or deference as they had toward Washington in the past. Washington then gave a short but impassioned speech, now known as the Newburgh Address , counseling patience. His message was that they should oppose anyone "who wickedly attempts to open the floodgates of civil discord and deluge our rising empire in blood." He then produced
25155-685: The field of battle nor do I wish to see them live in tyranny". After the Declaration of Independence was issued, Morris continued to supervise and coordinate efforts to secure arms and ammunition and export American goods. His strategy focused on using ships from New England to export tobacco and other goods from the Southern states to Europe and the islands of the Caribbean, then using the capital obtained from those exports to purchase military supplies from Europe. British spies and warships often frustrated his plans, and many American ships were captured in
25370-411: The field. Depending on the size of the army, it could be divided into wings or divisions (of typically three brigades ) that were temporary organizations, and brigades (of two to five regiments ) that in effect were permanent organizations and the basic tactical unit of the Continental Army. An infantry regiment in the Continental Army typically consisted of 8 to 10 companies, each commanded by
25585-586: The firm traded with India, the Levant , the West Indies , Spanish Cuba , Spain, and Italy. The firm's business of import, export, and general agency made it one of the most prosperous in Pennsylvania. In 1784, Morris, with other investors, underwrote the voyage of the ship Empress of China , the first American vessel to visit the Chinese mainland. Morris's partnership with Willing was established just after
25800-519: The form of a loan from France and a loan from Netherlands . This had the effect of capitalizing the bank with large deposits of gold and silver coin and bills of exchange . He then issued new paper currency backed by this supply. In the midst of the American Revolutionary War, U.S. government finances fell into a poor state as Congress lacked the power to raise revenue and the states largely refused to furnish funding. Without
26015-400: The foundation for the creation of the United States Army . The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all the Thirteen Colonies and, after 1776, from all 13 states. The American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, at a time when the colonial revolutionaries had no standing army. Previously, each colony had relied upon the militia (which
26230-420: The funds that they owed to Congress. Writing to the state governors, Morris argued that it was "high time to reliever ourselves from the infamy we have already sustained, and to rescue and restore the national credit. This can only be done by solid revenue." By late 1782, all of the states but Rhode Island had agreed to back an amendment allowing the tariff, but that was enough to block the amendment. Though he
26445-406: The government's debt certificates. Morris supported Hamilton's economic proposals, but the two differed on the site of the federal capital, as Hamilton wanted to keep it in New York. In June 1790, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson convinced Morris, Hamilton, and Madison to agree to a compromise in which the federal government assumed state debts, while a new federal capital would be established on
26660-408: The government, and he was aware of the poor state of affairs in Philadelphia. His movement to Newburgh had been ordered by Washington (he was returning to duty after recovering from an illness) and would not necessarily draw notice. Although his movements at camp are not known in detail, it appears likely that he met with General Gates not long after his arrival. Within hours rumors began flying around
26875-519: The help of France and for the remainder of the war, clothing was coming from over-sea procurement. The disbursing of money to pay soldiers and suppliers were the function of the Paymaster-General . James Warren was the first incumbent of this office. His successor was William Palfrey in 1776, who was followed by John Pierce Jr. in 1781. The Continental Army lacked the discipline typically expected of an army. When they first assembled,
27090-407: The issue. The letter was said to have been written by Major John Armstrong , aide to General Horatio Gates , although the authorship and underlying ideas are subjects of historical debate. Commander-in-Chief George Washington stopped any serious talk of rebellion when he made an emotional address to his officers asking them to support the supremacy of Congress. Not long afterward, Congress approved
27305-437: The issuing of a new currency, referred to as "Morris notes," backed by Morris's own funds. Morris also convinced Congress to allow him to purchase all supplies for the Continental Army, and Congress required states to furnish funding rather than supplying goods like flour or meat. By 1781, the Revolutionary War had become a stalemate between Britain and the United States. The British had concentrated their military operations in
27520-492: The last of the executive positions in November, when Benjamin Lincoln accepted appointment as Secretary of War . Along with General Washington and Continental Congress secretary Charles Thomson, the three executives served as the leaders of the de facto first national executive branch in U.S. history; Morris assumed an unofficial role as the leading department secretary. All three executives, as well as Washington, aligned with
27735-565: The late 1780s after a business partner mistakenly refused to honor bills issued by Morris, causing him to default on a loan. In 1784 Morris was part of a syndicate that backed the sailing of the Empress of China (1783) for the China trade.(In 1787 Morris also sent the ex-warship Alliance to Canton China as part of the China Trade). As part of the effort to repay France for loans that financed
27950-571: The latter committee, Morris helped arrange for the appointment of Silas Deane as Congress's representative to France; Deane was charged with procuring supplies and securing a formal alliance with France. Throughout 1776, Morris would emerge as a key figure on the Marine Committee; Rappleye describes him as the "de facto commander" of the Continental Navy. Morris favored a naval strategy of attacking Britain's "defenseless places" in an effort to divide Britain's numerically superior fleet. Along with Franklin, Dickinson, and John Adams , Morris helped draft
28165-402: The lifetime half pay pension. It also contained the vague threat that "any further experiments on their [the army's] patience may have fatal effects." The seriousness of the situation was also communicated to Congress by Secretary at War Benjamin Lincoln . Congress was bitterly divided on the subject of finance, with Rhode Island preventing action. The treasury was empty, and Congress lacked
28380-909: The list of Holker's associates (occasional or regular) is given in a note to volume 7. It is edifying: on the French side, Le Ray de Chaumont of course, Sabatier and Després, La Caze and Mallet, the bankers Le Couteulx and Ferdinand Grand; the authors have just forgotten Holker senior, Antoine Garvey and Baudard de Saint-James , associate in Sabatier's business. On the American side, three of the founding fathers , John Langdon , Thomas Fitzsimons and of course Robert Morris, Simeon and Barnabas Deane, brothers of Silas Deane, William Duer, who will be discussed again, Matthew Ridley , Mark Pringle, Jonathan Williams Sr. and Jr 40 , Stacey Hepburn, William Smith (en) , of Baltimore, Benjamin Harrison V , of Virginia 41 . Special mention for Philadelphia merchant Thomas Fitzsimons, one of
28595-529: The losses he had suffered. In January 1784 Morris submitted accounts, but the settlement would stumble over the claim for compensation for the depreciation suffered by Holker. Relations between the two partners deteriorated rapidly and Holker wanted to appeal to the courts. This dispute was not anecdotal, because it would lead to a deterioration in Franco-American relations , the French side noting Morris's stiffening and becoming increasingly concerned about
28810-401: The meeting of the convention, but rarely spoke after the first day, instead allowing lawyers and others more experienced with the law to debate various issues. His primary goals, including a provision ensuring the federal government had the power to lay tariffs and taxes, were shared by the vast majority of delegates at the convention. On September 17, Morris signed the final document produced by
29025-437: The midst of trading operations. In response, Morris authorized American envoys in Europe to commission privateers to attack British shipping, and he arranged for an agent, William Bingham , to pay for repairs to American privateers on the French island of Martinique . Due to the lucrative nature of privateering, Morris also started outfitting his own privateers. Another agent of Morris's, his half-brother Thomas Morris, proved
29240-483: The military , as did the Continental Congress , though there were minor disagreements about how this was to be carried out. Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money, or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as
29455-528: The moderate faction of Pennsylvania leaders that included Morris, a convention of delegates from across Pennsylvania began meeting to draft a new constitution and establish a new state government. At the same time, Congress was debating whether to formally declare independence from Britain. By early July 1776, Pennsylvania's delegation was the lone congressional delegation opposed to declaring independence. Morris refused to vote for independence, but he and another Pennsylvania delegate agreed to excuse themselves from
29670-472: The new tax. Facing colonial resistance, Parliament repealed the tax, but it later implemented other policies designed to generate tax revenue from the colonies. During the decade after the imposition of the Stamp Act, Morris would frequently join with other merchants in protesting many of Parliament's taxation policies. Writing to a friend about his objections to British tax policies, Morris stated that "I am
29885-417: The notable battles of Trenton , Princeton , Brandywine , Germantown , and Morristown, among many others. The army increased its effectiveness and success rate through a series of trials and errors, often at a great human cost. General Washington and other distinguished officers were instrumental leaders in preserving unity, learning and adapting, and ensuring discipline throughout the eight years of war. In
30100-538: The notes. After a mutiny over pay broke out in Pennsylvania, Congress voted to leave Philadelphia and establish a provincial capital in Princeton, New Jersey ; the mutiny dissipated shortly thereafter. Nationalists were devastated by this turn of events, and Hamilton resigned from Congress in mid-1783 after his proposal for convention to revise the Articles of Confederation was ignored. In November 1784, Morris resigned from his government positions. Rather than finding
30315-441: The officers and men for their assistance and reminded them that "the singular interpositions of Providence in our feeble condition were such, as could scarcely escape the attention of the most unobserving; while the unparalleled perseverance of the Armies of the United States, through almost every possible suffering and discouragement for the space of eight long years, was little short of a standing Miracle." Washington believed that
30530-504: The officers and soldiers of the continental line as established by the resolutions of Congress, fixing the arrangement of the Continental Army May 27, 1778, which rate of pay continued to the end of the war. During the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Army initially wore ribbons , cockades , and epaulettes of various colors as an ad hoc form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote in 1775: "As
30745-524: The organization of the Clothing Department. After this, on many accounts, the soldiers of the Continental Army were often poorly clothed, had few blankets, and often did not even have shoes. The problems with clothing and shoes for soldiers were often not the result of not having enough but of organization and lack of transportation. To reorganize the Board of War was appointed to sort out the clothing supply chain. During this time they sought out
30960-613: The outbreak of the French and Indian War , which hindered the usual supply of indentured servants from the British Isles to Pennsylvania. Many potential servants had been conscripted by the British Army to fight in Continental Europe , and a significant portion of the servants already in Pennsylvania were nearing the ends of their contracts. As such, there was a rapidly increasing demand in Pennsylvania for
31175-402: The owner took the ship and all the slaves to Jamaica . This was the last time Willing, Morris & Co. was involved in slave trade, though Morris continued to own slaves until 1797. In early 1769, at age 35, Morris married 20-year-old Mary White, the daughter of a wealthy and prestigious lawyer and landholder. Mary gave birth to the couple's first of seven children in December 1769. (One son
31390-468: The petition reflected widespread unhappiness in the Continental Army at the continued lack of pay. Some Nationalists, including Gouverneur Morris, believed that only the discontent of the army could force the adoption of the amendment authorizing Congress to impose a tariff. In March, Colonel Walter Stewart delivered the "Newburgh Address," in which he urged members of the Continental Army to rise up against Congress and demand payment. Washington prevented
31605-474: The position of Superintendent of Finance to oversee financial matters. Morris accepted appointment as Superintendent of Finance and also served as Agent of Marine, from which he controlled the Continental Navy. He helped provide supplies to the Continental Army under General George Washington , enabling, with the help of frequent collaborator Haym Salomon , the decisive victory in the Battle of Yorktown . Morris also reformed government contracting and established
31820-599: The position of the delegates who favored the reform of British policies but were unwilling to fully break with Britain. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress voted to create the Continental Association , an agreement to enforce a boycott against British goods beginning in December; it also advised each colony to establish committees to enforce the boycott. Morris was elected to the Philadelphia committee charged with enforcing
32035-431: The power to compel the states to provide the necessary funds for meeting its obligations. An attempt to amend the Articles of Confederation to allow Congress to impose an import tariff was decisively defeated by the states in November 1782, and some states had enacted legislation forbidding their representatives from supporting any sort of lifetime pension. Members of the "nationalist" faction in Congress who had supported
32250-507: The pro-slavery allies of Henry Laurens , the president of the Continental Congress . Due to his leave of absence, Morris did not play a large role in drafting the Articles of Confederation , which would be the first constitution of the United States, but he signed the document in March 1778. As some states objected to the Articles, it would not enter into force until 1781. Morris returned to Congress in May 1778 to vote for
32465-453: The promise of land ownership after the war.By 1780, more than 30,000 men served in the Continental army, but the lack of resources and proper training resulted in the deaths of over 13,000 soldiers. By 1781–1782, threats of mutiny and actual mutinies were becoming serious. Up to a fourth of Washington's army were of Scots-Irish (English and Scottish descent) Ulster origin , many being recent arrivals and in need of work. The Continental Army
32680-470: The purchases, with the intent of quickly reselling the land to realize a profit. Morris and his partners struggled to re-sell their lands, and Greenleaf dropped out from the partnership in 1795. Morris realized a profit by selling his lots in the District of Columbia in 1796, but he and Nicholson still owed their creditors approximately $ 12 million (about $ 215 million in 2023). By Morris's own admission
32895-433: The ratification of the new federal Constitution. The Constitutionalists, who saw the new federal constitution as a threat to state sovereignty, joined with Anti-Federalists in other states in seeking to prevent the ratification of the Constitution. In elections held in October and November 1787, Morris's Federalist allies retained control of the state legislature and won a majority of the elections held to select delegates for
33110-399: The realm of republican values . It also validated Washington's stature as a leading proponent of civilian control. Historian Richard Kohn writes that a number of key details about the individuals and their motivations are not known, and probably never will be. For example, it is unclear exactly how much Colonels Brooks and Stewart, the principal messengers in the affair, knew. The intent of
33325-453: The reassuring words of the authorities, they convinced themselves that the currency would rise, while Morris, for his own account, did the exact opposite: he did not keep any cash and invested it as soon as he had some in goods: he thus avoided losses linked to currency depreciation. The blow of the club is delivered in March 1780 : "Congress officially devalued "old emission" currency at a ratio of forty to one of species, thereby repudiating
33540-517: The recently approved Articles of Confederation. Such an amendment would greatly strengthen the power of the national government, but the amendment process required the consent of each state, and many states were reluctant to alter the balance of power between the states and the national government. The Articles gave Congress the sole power to conduct foreign policy, but the states retained all power over funding; Congress had no independent power to raise funds, and lacked any mechanism to force states provide
33755-497: The repayment of debts contracted by the United States . The interests of a foreign government which was both ally and creditor expanded the dispute from the private realm into the public arena. Holker consulted Thomas Fitzsimons and the latter explained to him that arbitration was preferable. This arbitration would be entrusted to five Philadelphia merchants, including Fitzsimons himself; he would have to wait five years for it. The verdict ofApril 1789exonerate Morris from any liability for
33970-668: The residence of the president until 1800, when President John Adams moved to the White House in Washington, D.C. In 1765, the Parliament of Great Britain imposed the Stamp Act , a tax on transactions involving paper that proved widely unpopular in British North America. In one of his first major political acts, Morris joined with several other merchants in pressuring British agent John Hughes to refrain from collecting
34185-490: The return of the nation's capital to Philadelphia and the federal assumption of state debts. Morris defeated Maclay's proposal to establish the capital in Pennsylvania at a site on the Susquehanna River west of Philadelphia, but James Madison defeated Morris's attempt to establish the capital just outside of Philadelphia. Morris's 1781 "Report On Public Credit" supplied the basis for Hamilton's First Report on
34400-505: The revolutionary war, most notably the Pension Act of 1832, escaped slaves who fought in the war were denied pension, one of whom was 80 year old Jehu Grant . Grant's 1832 pension application stated that during the Revolutionary War he had escaped from his enslaver, a Loyalist from New England , so that he would not be compelled to serve in the British forces. The application was rejected in 1834 due to Grant being an escaped slave and
34615-472: The same day, essentially warning him of the possibility of impending unrest among the ranks, and urging him to " take the direction " of the army's anger. Washington responded that he sympathized both with the plight of his officers and men and with those in Congress, but that he would not use the army to threaten the civil government. Washington believed such a course of action would violate the principles of republicanism for which they had all been fighting. It
34830-483: The same policies he had sought as Superintendent of Finance: a federal tariff, a national bank, a federal mint, and the funding of the national debt. Congress agreed to implement the Tariff of 1789 , which created a uniform impost on goods carried by foreign ships into American ports, but many other issues lingered into 1790. Among those issues were the site of the national capital and the fate of state debts. Morris sought
35045-400: The same time was an anonymous call for a meeting of all field officers for 11 a.m. the next day. Washington reacted with dispatch. On the morning of the 11th in his general orders he objected to the "disorderly" and "irregular" nature of the anonymously called meeting, and announced that there would be a meeting of officers on the 15th instead. This meeting, he said, would be presided over by
35260-437: The same time, Morris and others in Philadelphia learned that the United States and Britain had signed a preliminary peace agreement, bringing an unofficial end to the Revolutionary War. Congress approved a furlough of the Continental Army soldiers, subject to recall in case hostilities broke out once again. Morris distributed "Morris notes" to the remaining soldiers, but many soldiers departed for their homes rather than waiting for
35475-604: The same time, he was appointed general agent of the Royal Navy of France and in this capacity had to manage the logistics and finances of the French expeditionary force) . In early 1780, they became partners in William Turnbull and Co. Turnbull had worked for the secret Pennsylvania Committee of Commerce and would manage operations on their behalf.In the monumental edition of the Robert Morris Papers ,
35690-413: The senior officer present, and Washington requested a report of the meeting, implying that he would not attend. On the morning of the 12th a second unsigned letter appeared, claiming Washington's agreement to a meeting as an endorsement of the conspirators' position. Washington, who had initially thought the first letter to be the work of individuals outside the camp (specifically citing Gouverneur Morris as
35905-533: The slave trade. The firm advertised slave sales and directed company ships to purchase slaves from Africa to sell in British North America . One of the first ships the firm purchased, Nancy , was used to make two voyages to Africa to purchase slaves; the first voyage occurred in 1762, and resulted in the sale of approximately 170 slaves purchased from the Gold Coast in Wilmington, North Carolina . Though it
36120-489: The snow to and placed them in the hills surrounding Boston in March 1776. The British situation was untenable. They negotiated an uneventful abandonment of the city and relocated their forces to Halifax in Canada. Washington relocated his army to New York. For the next five years, the main bodies of the Continental and British armies campaigned against one another in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These campaigns included
36335-406: The soldiers from the officers they had chosen they did not believe they should have to serve. George Washington had to give in to the soldiers and negotiate with them. He needed them to have an army. Soldiers in the Continental Army were volunteers; they agreed to serve in the army and standard enlistment periods lasted from one to three years. Early in the war, the enlistment periods were short, as
36550-484: The soldiers in an effort to avoid discontent in the Army, 2) The address was written by Major Armstrong, General Gate's aide-de-camp, both of whom were anti-Morris partisans, 3) Armstrong went on to become a favorite of the Constitutionalists of Pennsylvania, who later made him their Clerk of the Assembly, 4) Morris's most bitter enemy, Arthur Lee, promoted articles published by anonymous partisans (probably Lee himself) in
36765-566: The soldiers which they could exchange for money. In 1781 and 1782, Patriot officials and officers in the Southern Colonies repeatedly implemented policies that offered slaves as rewards for recruiters who managed to enlist a certain number of volunteers in the Continental Army; in January 1781, Virginia's General Assembly passed a measure which announced that voluntary enlistees in the Virginia Line 's regiments would be given
36980-466: The state assembly as part of a slate of candidates that favored reforming the Pennsylvania constitution; he resigned from Congress to take up his seat. After Morris left Congress, Henry Laurens , Thomas Paine , and some other members of Congress continued their false attacks on him for allegedly using his position in Congress for his own financial benefit, but in early 1779 a congressional committee cleared Morris of all charges. With their plans to call
37195-408: The state constitution that included many of the alterations that Morris had long favored, including a bicameral legislature, a state governor with the power to veto bills, and a judiciary with life tenure. Morris refocused on his trading concerns after leaving office as Superintendent of Finance, seeking especially to expand his role in the tobacco trade. He began suffering from financial problems in
37410-467: The state of Pennsylvania from 1782 to 1794] to purchase 1,000,000 acres of Pennsylvania land besides land they already had title to in Luzerne County ; Northumberland County and Northampton County . [This was not the first partnership Morris and Nicholson were involved in; in 1792, Nicholson had negotiated the purchase from the federal government of the 202,000-acre (820 km ) tract known as
37625-406: The supply of arms, clothing, and provisions fell under other departments. The transportation of all supplies, even those provided by other departments, came under his ambit. The Quartermaster General served with the main army under General Washington, but was directly responsible to Congress. Deputy quartermasters were appointed by Congress to serve with separate armies, and functioned independently of
37840-536: The tax proposal (including Robert Morris , Gouverneur Morris , James Madison , and Alexander Hamilton ) believed that the army funding issues could be used as a lever to gain for Congress the ability to raise its own revenue. They took action and Kohn identifies three main leaders of the "conspiracy": Hamilton, Robert Morris, and Gouverneur Morris. Jack N. Rakove emphasizes the leadership of Robert Morris. The army delegation first met with Robert Morris and other nationalists. The politicians convinced McDougall that it
38055-520: The transactions could not be closed up." The Treasury Board elected in 1794-1795 those old accounts were brought to a settlement—a June 1796 entry in the Treasury debt against Morris for $ 93,312.63. Morris would explain in 1800 in debtors' prison that in fact the debt was due not just to himself but also his partners John Ross and Thomas Willing . After leaving office, Morris once again devoted himself to business, but state and federal politics remained
38270-414: The unrest spreading to the noncommissioned officers (sergeants and corporals). Riots occurred and mutiny threatened. Washington rejected suggestions that the army stay in operation until the states found the money for the pay. On April 19, 1783, his General Orders of the day announced the end of hostilities against Great Britain. Congress thereafter ordered him to disband the army, since everyone agreed that
38485-512: The very few Catholic signatories of the Constitution , appreciated for his wisdom by both Holker and Morris and who would serve as arbitrator in their disputes.. In fact, Holker's French partners fell into a double trap: lured by their yield, they invested part of the transferred funds in Congressional loan certificates that yielded 6% 43 , 44 , without realizing that these state funds would be transformed into junk bonds , and, strengthened by
38700-452: The vote on independence, thereby giving the pro-independence movement a majority in the Pennsylvania delegation. With Morris absent, all congressional delegations voted to pass a resolution declaring independence on July 2, and the United States formally declared independence on July 4, 1776. Despite his opposition to independence, and much to Morris's surprise, the Pennsylvania constitutional convention voted to keep Morris in Congress; he
38915-493: The war continued. This led to the army offering low pay, often rotten food, hard work, cold, heat, poor clothing and shelter, harsh discipline, and a high chance of becoming a casualty. At the time of the siege of Boston , the Continental Army at Cambridge, Massachusetts , in June 1775, is estimated to have numbered from 14,000 to 16,000 men from New England (though the actual number may have been as low as 11,000 because of desertions). Until Washington's arrival, it remained under
39130-490: The war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Major and minor mutinies—56 in all—diminished the reliability of two of the main units late in the war. The French played a decisive role in 1781 as Washington's Army was augmented by a French expeditionary force under Lieutenant General Rochambeau and a squadron of the French navy under the Comte de Barras . By disguising his movements, Washington moved
39345-478: The war finally ended the arrears would be made up. Throughout 1782 these issues were a regular topic of debate in Congress and in the army camp at Newburgh, and numerous memos and petitions by individual soldiers had failed to significantly affect Congressional debate on the subject. A number of officers organized under the leadership of General Henry Knox and drafted a memorandum to Congress. Signed by enough general officers that it could not be readily dismissed as
39560-399: The war without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses. As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, the role of the Continental Army became the subject of considerable debate. Some Americans had a general aversion to maintaining a standing army; but on the other hand, the requirements of the war against
39775-437: The war, Morris contracted to supply 20,000 hogsheads of tobacco annually to France beginning in 1785. Shortly after these contracts were signed, Ambassador Thomas Jefferson took it upon himself to interfere with these arrangements, bringing about the collapse of the tobacco market. Financier James Swan on July 9, 1795, managed to do something Morris had been unable to do: the entire U.S. National debt to France of US$ 2,024,899
39990-476: The war, the Continental Army established its own uniform with a black and white cockade among all ranks. Infantry officers had silver and other branches gold insignia: Robert Morris (financier) Robert Morris Jr. (January 20, 1734 – May 8, 1806) was an English-born American merchant, investor and politician who was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States . He served as
40205-516: The war. The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and volunteer troops that were either loyal to individual states or otherwise independent. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war. The Continental Army's 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form what was to become the Legion of the United States in 1792, which ultimately served as
40420-402: The war. The Department of New York (later the Northern Department) was created when Congress made Philip Schuyler its commander on June 15, 1775. The Southern and Middle Departments were added in February 1776. Several others were added the same year. A major general appointed by Congress commanded each department. Under his command came all Continental Army units within the territorial limits of
40635-442: The winter of 1777–1778, with the addition of Baron von Steuben , a Prussian expert, the training and discipline of the Continental Army was dramatically upgraded to modern European standards through the Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States . This was during the infamous winter at Valley Forge . Washington always viewed the Army as a temporary measure and strove to maintain civilian control of
40850-421: The work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action; and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Congress ended the War of American Independence on January 14, 1784, by ratifying the definitive peace treaty that had been signed in Paris on September 3. Monthly pay of
41065-410: The work of a few malcontents, the memo was delivered to Congress by a delegation consisting of General Alexander McDougall and Colonels John Brooks and Matthias Ogden in late December 1782. It expressed unhappiness over pay that was months in arrears, and concern over the possibility that the half pay pension would not be forthcoming. In the memo, they offered to accept a lump sum payment instead of
41280-494: Was Benjamin Church (1775), he was followed by John Morgan (1775–1777), William Shippen (1777–1781), and John Cochran (1781). Keeping the continentals clothed was a difficult task and to do this Washington appointed James Mease , a merchant from Philadelphia, as Clothier General. Mease worked closely with state-appointed agents to purchase clothing and things such as cow hides to make clothing and shoes for soldiers. Mease eventually resigned in 1777 and had compromised much of
41495-465: Was Congressman Thomas Morris , whose wife was related to the Livingston and Van Rensselaer New York political families). Morris and his family lived on Front Street in Philadelphia and maintained a second home, known as "The Hills," on the Schuylkill River to the northwest of the city. He later purchased another rural manor, which he named Morrisville , that was located across the Delaware River from Trenton, New Jersey . The Morrises worshiped at
41710-474: Was a flurry of activity in Philadelphia, which may have been occasioned by the arrival of Knox's letters. The nationalists had had little success in advancing their program through Congress, and continued to use rhetoric repeating concerns over the army's stability. On March 8 Pennsylvania Colonel Walter Stewart arrived at Newburgh. Stewart was known to Robert Morris; the two had previous dealings when Stewart proposed coordinating activities of private creditors of
41925-478: Was appointed to the Secret Committee of Trade, which supervised the procurement of arms and ammunition. As the revolutionary government lacked an executive branch or a civil service, the committees of Congress handled all government business. Biographer Charles Rappleye writes that the committee "handled its contracts in a clubby, often incestuous manner" that may have unfairly benefited politically connected merchants, including Morris. However, Rappleye also notes that
42140-449: Was appointed to the committee. Morris became part of the core group of members that directed the committee and served as the committee's chairman when Benjamin Franklin was absent. Charged with obtaining gunpowder , Morris arranged a large-scale smuggling operation to avoid British laws designed to prevent arms and ammunition from being imported into the colonies. Due to his success at smuggling gunpowder for Pennsylvania, Morris also became
42355-410: Was born in Liverpool, England, on January 20, 1734. His parents were Robert Morris Sr., an agent for a shipping firm, and Elizabeth Murphet; biographer Charles Rappleye concludes that Morris was probably born out of wedlock . Until he reached the age of thirteen, Morris was raised by his maternal grandmother in England. In 1747, Morris immigrated to Oxford, Maryland , where his father had prospered in
42570-416: Was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1786. In 1787, Morris was selected as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention , which wrote and proposed a new constitution for the United States. Morris rarely spoke during the convention, but the constitution produced by the convention reflected many of his ideas. Morris and his allies helped ensure that Pennsylvania ratified the new constitution, and
42785-475: Was established as a private institution governed by its investors but was subject to inspection by the Superintendent of Finance. The bank would take the national government's deposits, provide loans to Congress, and issue banknotes . Morris hoped that the bank would help finance the war, stabilize the nation's currency, and bring the country together under one unified monetary policy. As the bank would take some time to begin functioning, in 1781 Morris presided over
43000-557: Was followed by John Laurance in 1777 and Thomas Edwards in 1781 The Mustermaster General kept track by name of every officer and man serving in the army. The first mustermaster was Stephen Moylan . He was followed by Gunning Bedford Jr. 1776–1777 and Joseph Ward. Units of the Continental Army were assigned to any one of the territorial departments to decentralize command and administration. In general there were seven territorial departments, although their boundaries were subject to change and they were not all in existence throughout
43215-436: Was frustrated in the tariff battle, Morris continued to implement and propose other economic reforms. In January 1782, after receiving its charter from Congress, the Bank of North America commenced operations, and the bank's currency soon achieved wide circulation. Morris sought the establishment of a national mint to provide for a single coinage throughout the United States and proposed the first decimal currency , but Congress
43430-504: Was furloughed, although many of the rank and file realized it was effectively a disbandment. The army was formally disbanded in November 1783, leaving only a small force at West Point and several scattered frontier outposts. Discontent related to pay had resurfaced in Philadelphia in June 1783. Due in part to a critical miscommunication, troops in eastern Pennsylvania were led to believe that they would be discharged even before Morris' promissory notes would be distributed, and they marched to
43645-529: Was given within the army to some sort of coup d'état , while others dispute the notion. The exact motivations of congressmen involved in communications with army officers implicated in the events are similarly debated. After the British loss at the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781, the American Revolutionary War died down in North America, and peace talks began between British and American diplomats. The American Continental Army , based at Newburgh, New York , monitored British-occupied New York City. With
43860-455: Was imperative for the army to remain cooperative while they sought funding. The hope they expressed was to tie the army's demands to those of the government's other creditors to force opposing Congressmen to act. On January 6 Congress established a committee to address the army's memo. It first met with Robert Morris, who stated that there were no funds to meet the army's demands, and that loans for government operations would require evidence of
44075-484: Was made up of part-time citizen-soldiers) for local defense; or the raising of temporary provincial troops during such crises as the French and Indian War of 1754–1763. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the years leading to the war, colonists began to reform their militias in preparation for the perceived potential conflict. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774. Colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming
44290-458: Was paid in full. The United States no longer owed money to foreign governments, although it continued to owe money to private investors both in the United States and in Europe. This allowed the young United States to place itself on a sound financial footing. FromJuly 1778 to January 1780, Morris was agent, normally paid on commission for John Holker (French consul general for the four states of Delaware , Pennsylvania, New York and New Jersey . At
44505-447: Was profitable, this voyage did not make a large profit, and a second slave-trading voyage by Nancy resulted in her capture by French privateers . Willing, Morris & Co. also handled two slave auctions for other importers of slaves, offering 23 slaves for sale. Three years later, the firm advertised 17 slaves for sale who were brought from Africa onboard the slave ship Marquis de Granby . The slaves were not sold in Philadelphia, as
44720-412: Was racially integrated, a condition the United States Army would not see again until the late 1940s . During the Revolution, African American slaves were promised freedom in exchange for military service by both the Continental and British armies. Approximately 6,600 people of color (including African American, indigenous, and multiracial men) served with the colonial forces, and made up one-fifth of
44935-415: Was supported by a chief administrative officer, the Adjutant General . Horatio Gates held the position (1775–1776), Joseph Reed (1776–1777), George Weedon and Isaac Budd Dunn (1777), Morgan Connor 1777, Timothy Pickering (1777–1778), Alexander Scammell (1778–1781), and Edward Hand (1781–1783). An Inspector General assisted the Commander-in-Chief through periodically inspecting and reporting on
45150-429: Was the lone anti-independence delegate from Pennsylvania to retain his position. In August, Morris signed the Declaration of Independence despite having abstained. In explaining his decision, he stated, "I am not one of those politicians that run testy when my own plans are not adopted. I think it is the duty of a good citizen to follow when he cannot lead." He also stated, "while I do not wish to see my countrymen die on
45365-429: Was therefore formed in October 1777, of three commissioners not member of Congress. Two more commissioners, not members of Congress, were shortly thereafter added, but in October 1778, the membership was set to three commissioners not members of Congress and two commissioners members of Congress. In early 1780, the Quartermaster General , the Commissary General of Purchase, and the Commissary General of Issue were put under
45580-478: Was to occupy an entire block between Chestnut Street and Walnut Street on the western edge of Philadelphia. The structure was of red brick and marble lining. Besides Land Speculation, Morris founded several canal companies: [Similar to the Potomac Company ], two Pennsylvania canal companies were set up to try to link the produce of the western lands with the eastern markets; they were the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company chartered September 29, 1791, and
45795-495: Was unable to pay the soldiers of the Continental Army. The chief issue, aside from the unwillingness of the states to amend the Articles of Confederation, was the unwillingness of the states to supply adequate funding; many states refused to furnish any funds at all. The Bank of North America provided some loans, but eventually refused to furnish more funds until previous loans were paid off. Morris's efforts were further complicated by France's reluctance to extend more loans, as well as
46010-402: Was unclear to the Congressional nationalists whether Knox, who had been a regular supporter of army protests to Congress, would play a role in any sort of staged action. In letters written February 21, Knox unambiguously indicated he would play no such part, expressing the hope that the army's force would only be used against "the Enemies of the liberties in America." On February 25 and 26 there
46225-445: Was unwilling to back this project. He appointed several receivers, including Alexander Hamilton , to help circulate banknotes, report on the prices of goods, and perform other functions in places throughout the United States. He also reformed government procurement of supplies, saving money by placing the onus for the storage and transport of supplies on government contractors. Even after implementing several financial reforms, Morris
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