37-584: Newhaven Fort is a Palmerston fort built in the 19th century to defend the harbour at Newhaven , on the south coast of England . It was the largest defence work ever built in Sussex and is now open as a museum. A new fort to defend the port of Newhaven was a recommendation of the 1859 Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom , during the administration of Lord Palmerston . The design of
74-552: A battery of BL 6-inch Mk 24 coastal guns (a modern coast defence version of the Mark VII built during World War II), which were located west of the fort. During the Second World War it was manned by the 521st (Kent and Sussex) Coast Regiment, Royal Artillery . The army vacated the fort in 1962. Restoration began in 1982 following a failed commercial redevelopment venture, and 6-inch Mk VII guns have been re-installed in
111-490: A dockyard from the rear, or simply bombarding it. These forts were built in the new polygonal style without the traditional bastions and generally sited so as to form a "ring fortress", so that each fort could support its neighbour with artillery fire. Construction of some landward forts at Portsmouth and Plymouth had already begun in the 1850s and work on the ring fortress at Chatham was not started until 1875, resulting in very different designs as military theories changed over
148-554: A programme to increase their fleet to have 150 steamships, four of which would be ironclads , the first of which, La Gloire , superior to anything in the British inventory, was launched in 1859. Belatedly, the British response was the iron-hulled HMS Warrior , but several obsolete wooden ships of the line were building at the same time. When Palmerston returned to power in 1859, public concern over this naval arms race , combined with Napoleon III 's aggressive intervention in
185-487: A result of the Royal Commission fell into two main categories; coastal batteries and land forts. The main purpose of the coastal batteries was to provide protected positions for heavy coastal artillery which would be able to engage enemy warships and troopships . In some places, for instance high on a cliff, the guns could be mounted in a barbette or open gun pit. However, where the batteries were close to
222-579: A similar period of defence works construction, when some 140 circular towers were built for the same purpose (mainly along the Sussex, Kent and Suffolk coast to protect London) called Martello Towers , but these had become outdated. The new defences were built to defend a number of key areas of the British , Irish and Channel Island coastline, in particular areas around military bases, including: Other British coastal defences: Royal Commission on
259-599: The French Empire and was instigated by the Prime Minister , Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston , who came to be closely associated with the project. In the following year, the Commission's report recommended a huge programme of fortification to defend the country's arsenals and naval bases . Many of the recommendations were acted upon; however, the great expense, the length of time taken to complete
296-611: The Second Italian War of Independence , allowed him to act on his conviction that Britain's coastal defences were inadequate to prevent invasion if the Royal Navy was lured elsewhere. The Commission consisted of six eminent naval and military officers, plus a civilian architect : The Secretary of the Commission was Major William Jervois of the Royal Engineers , a progressive military engineer who held
333-622: The Victorian period on the recommendations of the 1860 Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom , prompted by concerns about the strength of the French Navy, and strenuous debate in Parliament about whether the cost could be justified. The name comes from their association with Lord Palmerston , who was Prime Minister at the time and promoted the idea. The works were also known as Palmerston's Follies , partly because
370-481: The Commission failed to enquire about Coles's pioneering design for a revolving gun turret , which he had patented in that year. Another interviewee was General John Fox Burgoyne , who had conducted the Siege of Sevastopol and was the current Inspector-General of Fortifications. Burgoyne's opinion was that the defence of the dockyard at Portsmouth was of primary importance and it could be protected from bombardment by
407-483: The Commission's brief was as follows: Inquiries may be made by Our Commissioners into the condition and sufficiency of the Fortifications existing for the Defence of Our United Kingdom, and examination had into all Works at present in progress for the improvement thereof, and consideration given to the most effective means of rendering the same complete, especially to all such Works of Defence as are intended for
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#1732780340394444-678: The Commissioners was published on 7 February 1860. The Commissioners concluded that the fleet, standing army and volunteer forces, even combined, did not provide sufficient defence against invasion. Further, that the coastline which they considered to be at risk, the 700 miles (1,100 km) from the Humber to Penzance , could not feasibly be completely fortified and therefore recommended that "the fortifications of this country should be confined to those points... whose possession would give him sure bases for operations". A detailed plan and costing
481-656: The Defence of the United Kingdom The Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom was a committee formed in 1859 to enquire into the ability of the United Kingdom to defend itself against an attempted invasion by a foreign power, and to advise the British Government on the remedial action required. The appointment of the Commission had been prompted by public concern about the growing military and naval power of
518-670: The Exchequer , who between them had recently concluded the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty , a Free Trade agreement with France. The bill was accepted as the Fortifications (Provisions for Expenses) Act 1860, providing an initial sum of two million pounds and later payments financed by loans to a total of nine million. By the time the fortifications were completed in the 1880s it was clear that the French had not seriously planned to invade. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 removed
555-414: The battery was closed either by a simple wall pierced with loopholes , or by a more elaborate defensible building which doubled as a barracks for the garrison. The intention of these rearward defences was that they would be strong enough to prevent the battery being taken by enemy infantry but weak enough to be demolished should the battery fall into enemy hands. In two forts, Fort Darnet and Fort Hoo ,
592-453: The casemates formed a complete circle; other circular works were built as sea forts with foundations on the sea-bed and entirely surrounded by water. A number of the Royal Commission coastal works were upgrades of existing fortifications, such as the 16th century Pendennis Castle at Falmouth . The landward fortifications were intended to prevent an enemy force who may have landed at an undefended beach from marching overland and assaulting
629-405: The first ones which were around Portsmouth , had their main armament facing inland to protect Portsmouth from a land-based attack, and thus (as it appeared to some) facing the wrong way to defend from a French attack. The name also derived from the use of the term "folly" to indicate " a costly ornamental building with no practical value ". They were criticized because at the time of their completion,
666-529: The first phase of the Commission's work was a series of interviews with technical experts and senior military and naval officers. One specialist was Captain Cowper Phipps Coles , the hero of the Siege of Taganrog and an expert in the bombardment of fortifications from the sea. He was so enraged by the numerous questions posed by the Commissioners that he was twice asked to leave the room so that he could recover his composure. Perhaps because of this,
703-628: The floating batteries were also dispensed with, resulting in a total saving of £3,930,000. Palmerston finally laid the Fortification Bill before an astonished House of Commons on 23 July 1860. Opposition came from those who believed that there was no threat from France and those who believed that greater security should be achieved by further spending on the navy. The chief opponents were the Radical Richard Cobden and his ally, William Ewart Gladstone , then Chancellor of
740-409: The foot of the chalk cliffs was reached by a tunnel from within the fort. The garrison was to be housed in casemated barracks built into the northern and western ramparts. The main entrance at the north east angle was accessed by an "Equilibrium Bridge" designed and patented by Ardagh himself. Work commenced in 1864, with a workforce of 250 men and three steam engines . Shingle for the concrete
777-502: The fort commenced in 1862 and was overseen by 22-year-old Anglo-Irish Lieutenant John Charles Ardagh , working from an office in Brighton . The site selected was on cliffs overlooking the harbour called Castle Hill, which was already occupied by a battery which originated in the mid-16th century. Instead of levelling the site, as was customary, Ardagh designed the fort to conform to the existing contours. A 40 foot wide moat protected
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#1732780340394814-444: The fort in 2014, 2016, and 2018. The festival organizer and arts use the fort-specific architecture and spaces as part of their temporary installations. The festival was largely started as an attempt to make use of the fort and help preserve its character. Palmerston fort The Palmerston Forts are a group of forts and associated structures around the coasts of the United Kingdom and Ireland . The forts were built during
851-501: The fort to approximate the 1906 - 1941 armament. The fort is preserved and maintained by Lewes District Council as Newhaven Fort . In 2015 the fort's network of tunnels was featured extensively in the British horror film, ' The Cutting Room '. In the BBC TV programme Great British Railway Journeys (Series 7, Episode 7) , Michael Portillo visited Newhaven Fort. Fort Process , a multi-disciplinary sonic arts festival, has been held at
888-600: The fortification and garrisoning of the Isle of Wight and also Portsdown Hill , the ridge which overlooks Portsmouth from the north. Burgoyne also believed that the coast between Portsmouth and the Thames was vulnerable to invasion and that every small harbour there needed to be fortified. Sir William Armstrong , the artillery designer and manufacturer, was questioned at length about the current capabilities of modern rifled artillery and likely future developments. Armstrong's opinion
925-410: The northern and western sides of the fort, which were lined with concrete, the first time this material had been used to any extent in a British fortification. The junction of the northern and western arms of the moat was protected by a counterscarp gallery and a sally port . The eastern side overlooking the harbour was protected by a short wet moat and by the embankment of the harbour. A caponier at
962-520: The post of Assistant Inspector-General of Fortifications. Although not appointed as a Commissioner, Jervois seems to have had considerable influence on the conduct of the Commission. Amongst the Commissioners themselves, Cooper Key was an expert in the latest advances in naval gunnery , while Lefroy was an experienced and knowledgeable artillery officer who had been one of the founders of the Royal Artillery Institution . Fergusson
999-566: The protection of Our Royal Dockyards , in case of any hostile attack being made by foreign enemies, both by sea and land. An attached memorandum directed the attention of the Commissioners to the works already under construction at Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight , Plymouth , Portland , Pembroke and Chatham ; they were further asked to consider how the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich might best be defended. Starting on 3 November 1859,
1036-463: The shoreline and could be engaged directly by enemy gunfire, each heavy gun was mounted in a casemate , a vaulted chamber with embrasure for the gun to fire through which was pierced through an armoured shield. Since being mounted in an enclosed space limited the traverse of the gun, casemates were arranged in a long curved row so that the guns of the battery could follow the progress of a passing enemy ship, each weapon engaging it in turn. The rear of
1073-416: The threat and the forts became known as Palmerston's Follies . As a key purpose of fortification is deterrent, this judgement was harsh, but with the rapid development of warship design during the period, the time taken to plan and implement the works would always have caused problems with ensuring that the defences were capable of defeating a French attack force. The types of fortification constructed as
1110-570: The threat from the French navy had passed, largely due to the complete alignment of Napoleon III's foreign policy with British interests then to the withdrawal of France following its crushing by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, and because the technology of the guns had become obsolete. They were the most costly and extensive system of fixed defences undertaken in Britain in peacetime. Some sixty years previously, there had been
1147-439: The various works and their perceived usefulness were all subjects of critical political, press and public debate. In the late 1850s, there were serious concerns that France might attempt to invade the United Kingdom. The recent period had seen great improvements in gunnery (with Rifled Muzzle Loader (RML) and Rifled Breech Loader (RBL) designs) and the widespread introduction of steam propulsion in ships. In 1858, France began
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1184-549: Was an expert in the history of eastern architecture, but had also published books entitled; An Essay on a Proposed New System of Fortification: with Hints for its Application to our National Defences (1849), The Peril of Portsmouth; or, French Fleets and English Forts (1852) and Portsmouth Protected: a Sequel to the Peril of Portsmouth (1856). Formulated by Lord Palmerston and the Secretary of State for War , Sidney Herbert ,
1221-416: Was produced for each location which required defences, including forts which were already under construction, resulting in a massive programme. The total expenditure projected for the purchase of land and construction costs (including some funds that had already been agreed but not yet provided) was as follows: Also included in the costings were the total of £500,000 for the armament of these works (a sum that
1258-638: Was taken from the beach and clay for the six million bricks required was found nearby. Work was completed in the summer of 1871 and the guns were emplaced in 1873. The fort proper was originally armed on the eastern side in the 1870s with two 9-inch rifled muzzle-loading guns on Moncrieff disappearing carriages , the only such arrangement in the UK. From about 1906 the armament consisted of two modern 6-inch Mark VII breechloading naval guns , and two modern light QF 12-pounder guns for defence against torpedo boats . The main 6-inch Mark VII guns were replaced in 1941 by
1295-562: Was that his latest guns would be able to defeat some features of current fortification, such as the Carnot wall , but that the maximum range of artillery would be unlikely to exceed 5 miles (8.0 kilometres) in the future. The Commission also conducted a series of visits to the sites in question, before convening to produce a report of their findings. Perhaps because the Commissioners were all respected experts in their own fields, they were apparently able to work together amicably. The Report of
1332-621: Was then addressed by the Royal Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Defence of British Possessions and Commerce Abroad . The government, although broadly in agreement with the report, thought that it was too ambitious to be accepted by Parliament in its original form, and therefore set about reducing the number of planned works while attempting to retain the objectives of the scheme for each locality. Planned forts that were not proceeded with included fifteen at Plymouth, ten at Pembroke, six at Portsmouth and four at Chatham;
1369-400: Was to prove hopelessly optimistic) and £1,000,000 for the construction of floating batteries , giving a grand total of £11,850,000 . The Commissioners further suggested that a force of volunteer artillerymen be raised to man the guns in the new works. However the commission left “extended commerce” and consequently the food supply of Great Britain, to the protection of the fleet. This topic
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