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45-579: The resolution was drafted by Representative Francis G. Newlands of Nevada, a Democrat. Annexation was a highly controversial political issue, along with the similar issue of the acquisition of the Philippines in 1898 . In 1897, US President William McKinley signed a treaty of annexation for the Republic of Hawaii which lacked 2/3 support in the Senate and thus never went into effect. In April 1898,

90-637: A "White Plank" calling for the repeal of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and the restriction of immigration to whites. Newlands was stricken with heart failure at his Senate office on the afternoon of December 24, 1917, and died that night at his home at 2236 Massachusetts Avenue NW. He was interred at Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington, D.C. The Francis Griffith Newlands Memorial Fountain

135-478: A Democrat, most of its support came from Republicans. It passed the house by a vote of 209 to 91; supporters included 182 Republicans. It passed the Senate by a two-thirds majority vote of 42–21. It was approved on July 4, 1898, and signed on July 7 by McKinley. Queen Liliʻuokalani sent a letter of protest to the U.S. House of Representatives in attempt to return control of her homeland to native Hawaiians, stating her throne had been taken illegally. On August 12, 1898,

180-559: A ceremony was held on the steps of ʻIolani Palace to signify the official transfer of Hawaiian state sovereignty to the United States. None of the Hawaiian leadership attended, nor did most Hawaiian natives follow boycott directives. This remembrance demonstrates the emotional response to the ceremony: "An event of this magnitude would ordinarily call for gala celebrations that night. However, there were no celebrations as there

225-466: A difficult period of transition, but eventually, private companies take over functions previously performed by governments, such as security, dispute resolution, production of money and infrastructure, and national defense. The result is a society that is different, in many ways, from today. Barker stated that he does not advocate the elimination of government and that his book is only an attempt to explore where libertarian ideas might lead. According to him,

270-738: A member of the Silver Party . In 1898, he created the Newlands Resolution , which annexed the Republic of Hawaii , creating a new territory. He supported a greater federal role in conservation and pushed for federal funding of western arid land irrigation projects. He helped pass the Reclamation Act of 1902, also called the Newlands Act, which created what would become the Bureau of Reclamation . Newlands entered

315-677: A proper regard for humanity, will minimize the danger which they constitute to our institutions and our civilizations." He also expressed fear that people from Asia would take over the West Coast: "Asia, with nearly a billion people of the yellow and brown races, who, if there were no restrictions, would quickly settle upon and take possession of our entire western coast and intermountain region." He distinguished between Chinese and Japanese people using stereotypes: "the Chinese, who are patient and submissive, would not create as many complications as

360-465: A quarter of the islands' population was Japanese. That would allow Japan to dominate the Pacific and undermine American hopes for large-scale trade with Asia. Francis G. Newlands Francis Griffith Newlands (August 28, 1846 – December 24, 1917) was an American politician and land developer who served as United States representative and Senator from Nevada and a member of

405-706: A regent on the Board of Regents of the State of Iowa on May 1, 2019. A former economist for the Federal Reserve , Barker operates a real estate and finance company and is an Iowa Republican Party official. His academic research has been covered in print and broadcast media including Marketplace , As It Happens , The Economist , Time , and The New York Times . He has also written for U.S. News & World Report , The Christian Science Monitor , Collier's , and other publications. David Barker

450-541: A taste of Hawaiian hospitality." Hawaii demonstrated its value as a naval base in wartime and the American colony on Hawaii won widespread American approval for its help. With the opposition weakened by its strategic importance, Hawaii was annexed by the Newlands Resolution, by way of Congressional-executive agreement method, which requires only a majority vote in both houses. Although the bill was authored by

495-599: A variety of topics, including real estate markets, urban economics, terrorism insurance, health economics , business ethics, economic history, and libertarian political economy. A 2009 paper on the effects of home ownership on children received widespread attention. It argued that previous academic work showing positive effects of home ownership on children's test scores and behavior failed in adequately controlling for factors other than home ownership and that when they are taken into account, home ownership has no economically or statistically-significant effects. A paper analyzing

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540-760: Is a sixth-generation Iowan. He graduated from Iowa City West High School , then received a B.A. from the University of California at Berkeley, and an M.A. and Ph.D. in economics from the University of Chicago . He also attended the London School of Economics during his junior year of college. After completing graduate school Barker worked as an economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York , helping to develop an early warning system for failing banks and methods to detect racial discrimination in mortgage lending, as well as conducting analysis of

585-533: Is in Chevy Chase Circle, a federal park that divides D.C. and Maryland. In 2014, a member of the Chevy Chase advisory neighborhood commission proposed a resolution calling for the removal of Newlands' name from the fountain because of his white supremacist views on race, including his desire to remove the vote for African Americans. Others argued that Chevy Chase should not alter the monument because

630-499: Is one of six properties in Nevada designated as a National Historic Landmark . Many notable people, including Barbara Hutton in 1935, stayed at the house while waiting for their divorce paperwork to be finalized by George Thatcher, a local divorce lawyer who purchased the home in 1920. David R. Barker David R. Barker (born May 7, 1961) is an American author, academic, businessman, and politician, who began serving as

675-669: The Basel Accord capital requirements. After moving back to Iowa in 1994, Barker taught real estate and corporate finance at the University of Iowa as an adjunct professor. In 1997 he began teaching real estate to MBAs at the University of Chicago, which he continued to do until 2007. Barker also taught urban economics to undergraduates at the University of Chicago for several years. He has also taught at CIMBA in Paderno del Grappa , Italy. Barker's academic research covers

720-598: The Chevy Chase Land Company to develop their land, which by then totaled more than 1,700 acres, . Between 1890 and 1892, the Land Company built a five-mile extension of Connecticut Avenue from Rock Creek past the District line and into Maryland. The new road included two new bridges and streetcar tracks laid down the center. The Rock Creek Railway opened in 1892. To supply the electricity to

765-640: The Democratic Party . A supporter of westward expansion, he helped pass the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902, which created the Bureau of Reclamation and boosted the agricultural industry by building dams to support irrigation in the arid Western states. An avowed white supremacist , Senator Newlands argued publicly for racial restrictions on immigration and repealing the 15th Amendment . As land developer, Newlands founded

810-706: The United States Senate in 1903 as a Democrat . He supported the protection of the National Forests under the United States Forest Service in 1905, and the creation of the National Park Service in 1916. He was a member of the Senate subcommittee that investigated the 1912 sinking of RMS  Titanic . In 1916, he was the only Democratic senator to vote against the nomination of Louis Brandeis to

855-677: The Caribbean. In a 1909 journal article, "A Western View of the Race Question" published in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Newlands wrote that Black people were "a race of children" who threatened the United States. The country, he wrote, "should start immediately upon the serious consideration of a national policy regarding the people of the black race now within our boundaries, which, with

900-564: The Chevy Chase Springs Hotel (later the Chevy Chase School for Girls , now the 4-H Youth Conference Center). Newlands ensured the community included schools, churches, country clubs, tree-lined streets, a water supply and a sewage system. Groceries and daily purchases were brought from Washington, D.C., on the railway at no charge to residents. From 1894 to 1936, the Land Company operated an amusement park on

945-610: The Civil War. The anti-imperialists opposed expansion and believed that imperialism violated the fundamental principle that just, republican government derives from " consent of the governed ." The League argued that such activity would necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and non-intervention that were expressed in the Declaration of Independence, George Washington's Farewell Address , and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address . However, they could not stop

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990-541: The Hui Aloha 'Aina and Hui Kulai'aina groups organised a mass petition drive that obtained 21,269 signatures on the "Petition Against Annexation"—more than half of the 39,000 native Hawaiians. Debate between anti-sovereignty and Hawaiian sovereignty activism still exists over the legality of the acquisition of Hawaii under the United States Constitution . The Hawaiian sovereignty movement views

1035-579: The Sharon estate. Newlands married Edith McAllister and moved to Nevada in 1888. In the late 1880s, Newlands and his partners began to acquire farmland in northwestern Washington, D.C. , and southern Montgomery County, Maryland , in order to develop a residential streetcar suburb for the nation's capital. On June 23, 1888, Newlands chartered the Rock Creek Railway for a single-track streetcar. Two years later, Newlands and his partners formed

1080-400: The U.S. Supreme Court. Newlands held white supremacist beliefs and spoke publicly in favor of restricting the rights of African Americans. Newlands was an outspoken white supremacist who advocated for those beliefs as a senator, and a white nationalist who sought to secure the United States as a homeland for whites. In 1905, he advocated for the paid resettlement of African Americans to

1125-515: The U.S. in 1875, and in exchange gave the U.S. Navy a long term lease of Pearl Harbor for a Naval Base. The creation of the Territory of Hawaii was the final step in a long history of dwindling Hawaiian sovereignty and divided the local population. The annexation was opposed among the Polynesian population and occurred without a referendum of any kind. Between September 11 and October 2, 1897,

1170-512: The United States went to war with Spain. The Republic of Hawaii decided not to support the war effort and declared its neutrality. According to Ralph S. Kuykendall, "The Hawaiian government threw aside its neutrality and did all it could to aid the Americans....Honolulu became a mid-ocean stopover for the United States troops that were sent across the Pacific to follow up Dewey's victory. The American soldiers were enthusiastically welcomed and given

1215-623: The annexation as illegal. However, the U.S. Supreme Court gave tacit recognition to the legitimacy of Hawaii's annexation in DeLima v. Bidwell , 182 U.S. 1, 196 (1901). The United States assumed $ 4 million in Hawaiian debt as part of the annexation. David R. Barker of the University of Iowa stated in 2009 that unlike the Alaska Purchase , Hawaii has been profitable for the country, with net tax revenue almost always exceeding non-defense spending. He estimated an internal rate of return for

1260-594: The annexation of more than 15%. Multiple viewpoints in the United States and in Hawaii were raised for and against annexation from 1893 to 1898. Historian Henry Graff wrote that at first, "Public opinion at home seemed to indicate acquiescence.... Unmistakably, the sentiment at home was maturing with immense force for the United States to join the great powers of the world in a quest for overseas colonies." President Grover Cleveland , on taking office in March 1893, rescinded

1305-452: The annexation proposal. His biographer Alyn Brodsky argued that it was a deeply personal conviction on Cleveland's part to an immoral action against the little kingdom: Cleveland had to mobilize support from Southern Democrats to fight the treaty. He sent former Georgia Representative James H. Blount as a special representative to Hawaii to investigate and to provide a solution. Blount was well known for his opposition to imperialism. Blount

1350-708: The change would belittle Newlands' legislative accomplishments. On July 27, 2020, the Advisory Neighborhood Commission of Chevy Chase, D.C., voted unanimously to ask the National Park Service to remove the plaque bearing his name from the Francis Griffith Newlands Memorial Fountain and create an exhibit documenting Newlands's racism. A similar renaming effort has begun around Newlands Park in Reno, Nevada . Newlands' former mansion in Reno

1395-461: The economics of the 1867 Alaska Purchase by the US from Russia argued that the financial returns to the federal government, tax revenue minus administrative costs, have been lower than alternative investments with similar risk. Barker is the author of Welcome to Free America , a book set in 2057 as a guide to immigrants coming to the former United States after the collapse of government. It describes

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1440-406: The even more energetic forces of imperialism, which were led by Secretary of State John Hay , naval strategist Alfred T. Mahan , Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge , Secretary of War Elihu Root , and the young politician Theodore Roosevelt . Those expansionists had vigorous support from newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer , who whipped up popular excitement. There

1485-722: The lake as a means to draw prospective buyers to the development and to keep the streetcars supplied with evening and weekend passengers. In 1893, Newlands began to subdivide some property he inherited in Burlingame, California . He started with the Burlingame Country Club and five cottages. The following year, he added the Burlingame train station. Newlands represented Nevada in the United States House of Representatives from 1893 to 1903 as

1530-522: The neighborhoods of Chevy Chase, Washington, D.C. ; and Chevy Chase, Maryland , and took steps to prevent non-white people from moving there. To enable the development of these streetcar suburbs , he founded the Rock Creek Railway , which became one of the two major streetcar companies serving the Washington, D.C., area in the early decades of the 20th century. Newlands was born in Natchez, Mississippi , on August 28, 1846 (or 1848; sources differ). He

1575-527: The presence of the Japanese, whose strong and virile qualities would constitute an additional element of difficulty." In a June 17, 1912, article in the New York Times , Newlands wrote, "I believe this should be a white man's country and that we should frankly express our determination that it shall be." At the 1912 Democratic National Convention , he proposed that the party's platform include

1620-812: The reign of law and respect for orderly government in Hawaii." In July 1889, during a small-scale rebellion, Merrill landed Marines to protect Americans, an action that the State Department explicitly approved. Stevens had read those 1887 instructions and followed them in 1893. A vigorous nationwide anti-expansionist movement, organized as the American Anti-Imperialist League , emerged that listened to Cleveland and Carl Schurz as well as Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan , industrialist Andrew Carnegie , author Mark Twain and sociologist William Graham Sumner , and many prominent intellectuals and politicians who came of age during

1665-848: The result could be considered by different people to be a utopia or a dystopia. Barker was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in Cleveland in 2016. He is also a member of the State Central Committee of the Republican Party of Iowa and was appointed to the Executive Council of the Empower Rural Iowa Initiative by Governor Kim Reynolds . Barker's companies own over 2,000 apartments in

1710-772: The streetcars, the company dammed Coquelin Run, a small tributary of Rock Creek, just east of Connecticut Avenue ; the resulting Chevy Chase Lake supplied water for an electric generating plant. Newlands' development companies attached covenants to lots in Chevy Chase, D.C. ; Chevy Chase, Maryland ; and later Burlingame, California. These covenants did not explicitly forbid their sale to people of specific races or religions. Instead, they forbade buyers to build homes that cost less than certain amounts — e.g., $ 3,000 and $ 5,000 — effectively preventing their sale to members of minority populations with less access to wealth. Newlands created

1755-558: Was admitted to the bar in 1869. In 1901, he received an honorary M.A. degree. In 1870, Newlands moved to San Francisco , California . He married Clara Adelaide Sharon, the daughter of future Nevada senator William Sharon , in 1874. They had three daughters. Newlands helped William Sharon to reopen the Bank of California , and supervised the management of the Palace Hotel, San Francisco . When Newlands' wife died, he inherited

1800-435: Was also a leader for white supremacy , which ended the right to vote by southern Blacks in the 1890s . Some observers had speculated that he would support annexation on the grounds of the inability of Asiatics to govern themselves. Instead, Blount opposed imperialism, called for the US military to restore Queen Liliuokalani, and argued that the Hawaii natives should be allowed to continue their "Asiatic ways." Blount seemingly

1845-556: Was deep concern that Japan would take over Hawaii as part of its colonial empire , which would pose a serious threat to the West Coast. Mahan and Roosevelt designed a global strategy calling for a competitive modern navy, Pacific bases, an isthmian canal through Nicaragua or Panama, and (above all) an assertive role for the United States as the largest industrial power. McKinley's position was that Hawaii could never survive on its own but would quickly be gobbled up by Japan since already,

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1890-411: Was submitted to Congress for a debate that lasted over a year. Congress raised objections that establishing an elected territorial government in Hawaii would lead to the admission of a state with a non-white majority. Annexation allowed duty-free trade between the islands and the mainland, although this had mostly already been accomplished through a reciprocity trade deal King David Kalakaua had made with

1935-511: Was the fourth of five children born to Jessie and James Newlands, immigrants from Scotland . His father, trained as a physician in Edinburgh , died in 1851. Newlands was raised in Illinois and Washington, D.C. In 1867, he went to Yale University but left after his first year. In 1869, he graduated from Columbian College, which is now George Washington University Law School , and

1980-585: Was too much sadness, too much bitterness and resentment prevalent in the atmosphere and the authorities were afraid of riots by the unhappy frustrated Hawaiians." The resolution established a five-member commission to study the laws that were needed in Hawaii. The commission included Territorial Governor Sanford B. Dole (R-Hawaii Territory), Senators Shelby M. Cullom (R-IL) and John T. Morgan (D-AL), Representative Robert R. Hitt (R-IL) and former Hawaii Chief Justice and later Territorial Governor Walter F. Frear (R-Hawaii Territory). The commission's final report

2025-475: Was unaware of the written policy set for Hawaii in Cleveland's first term by his Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard for Hawaii. Bayard sent written instructions to the American minister George W. Merrill that in the event of another revolution in Hawaii, it was a priority to protect American commerce, lives, and property. Bayard specified that "the assistance of the officers of our Government vessels, if found necessary, will therefore be promptly afforded to promote

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