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60-620: It is believed that the name of the river was derived from the Caddo word "Nachawi", meaning "wood of the bow", after Spanish settlers called it Río Neches . With the exception of dams and manmade lakes, much of the river is in a natural state. Approximately 11 miles of the upper Neches flows through the Neches River National Wildlife Refuge , established to protect the biologically diverse bottomland hardwood forest and habitat for migratory birds , and opened to

120-581: A syllable nucleus . See the section below for an explanation of other phonological changes which may occur in the following examples. There are two vowel syncope processes in Caddo, which both involve the loss of a low-tone vowel in certain environments. The first syncope process was described above as low tone-deletion. The second syncope process is described below: As a result of the syncope processes described above, several consonant clusters emerge that are then simplified by way of phonological process. At

180-601: A Caddo app is available for Android phones. As of 2012, the Caddo Nation teaches weekly language classes; language CDs, a coloring book, and an online learning website are also available. There is a Caddo grammar, published August 2018, and an in-depth examination of the Caddo verb, published in 2004. In August 2022 the Caddo Nation Language Preservation Program was launched. The program's goals are to archive resources in

240-556: A Caddo/ Delaware medicine man who spoke only Caddo , was an influential Ghost Dance leader. Practitioners believed that the dance would help them return to their traditional ways and to stop European-American intrusions into their land and culture. In 1880, Wilson became a peyote roadman . The tribe had known the Half Moon peyote ceremony, but Wilson introduced the Big Moon ceremony to them. The Caddo Nation remains very active in

300-455: A chairperson. Some 6,000 people are enrolled in the nation, with 3,044 living within the state of Oklahoma. Individuals are required to document at least 1/16 Caddo ancestry in order to enroll as citizens. In July 2016, Tamara M. Francis was re-elected as the Chairman of the Caddo Nation. Chairman Tamara Francis is the daughter of the first elected female chairman, Mary Pat Francis. She was

360-417: A corner and allowed to exist by sufferance." Tribal governments were dismantled at this time, and Native Americans were expected to act as state and US citizens. After some period, the adverse effects of these changes were recognized. The Caddo and other Native American peoples suffered greatly from the disruption of their traditional cultures, and lost much of their lands in the decades after allotment. Under

420-601: A deeper level the security of the Caddo relied on centuries of living in dispersed settlements. French explorers in the early 18th century encountered the Natchitoche in northern Louisiana. They were followed by fur traders from French outposts along the Gulf Coast . Later Catholic missionaries from France and Spain also traveled among the people. The Europeans carried infections such as smallpox and measles , because these were endemic in their societies. As

480-449: A diet based on cultivated crops, particularly maize (corn), but also sunflower , pumpkins , and squash . These foods held cultural significance, as did wild turkeys . They hunted and gathered wild plants, as well. The Caddo Native Americans had a culture that consisted of the hunting and gathering dynamic. The men hunted year round, while the young and healthy women were responsible for the gathering of fruits, seeds, and vegetables for

540-440: A double letter: /nɑ́ttih/ "woman." Caddo has three contrastive vowel qualities: /i/ , /a/ and /u/ , and two contrastive vowel lengths, long and short. However, there is a great deal of phonetic variation in the short vowels. The high front vowel /i/ is generally realized as its lower counterpart /ɪ/ , and the high back vowel /u/ is similarly often realized as its lower counterpart /ʊ/ . The low central vowel /ä/ has

600-511: A society that is defined by archaeologists as "Caddoan" had emerged. By 1200, the many villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had developed extensive maize agriculture, producing a surplus that allowed for greater density of settlement. In these villages, artisans and craftsmen developed specialties. The artistic skills and earthwork mound-building of the Caddoan Mississippians flourished during

660-418: A wider range of variation, pronounced (most commonly) as /ɐ/ when it is followed by any consonant except a semivowel or a laryngeal consonant, as a low central /ä/ at the end of an open syllable or when followed by a laryngeal consonant, and as /ə/ before a semivowel. In general, the long vowels do not feature this kind of variation but are simply lengthened versions of the phonemes that are represented in

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720-784: A year because of the internal conflict, in October 2014 ordered a new election for all positions. In the January 2015 elections, all the top tribal positions were won by women: Tamara Michele Francis as chair, Carol D. Ross as vice chair, Jennifer Reeder as secretary, and Wildena G. Moffer as treasurer. In July 2016, Tamara M. Francis was re-elected as the Chairman of the Caddo Nation. The Council consists of Chairman Francis, Vice Chairman Carol D. Ross, Acting Secretary Philip Martin, Treasurer Marilyn McDonald, Oklahoma City Representative Jennifer Wilson, Binger Representative Marilyn Threlkeld, Fort Cobb Representative Maureen Owings. Chairman Francis

780-495: Is critically endangered, with no exclusively Caddo-speaking community and as of 2023 only two speakers who had acquired the language as children outside school instruction, down from 25 speakers in 1997. Caddo has several mutually intelligible dialects. The most commonly used dialects are Hasinai and Hainai; others include Kadohadacho, Natchitoches and Yatasi. Caddo is a member of the Caddoan language family ; this family includes

840-513: Is generally considered a language isolate. The Caddo Nation is making a concentrated effort to save the Caddo language. The Kiwat Hasí꞉nay ('Caddo Home') foundation, located at the tribal home of Binger, Oklahoma, offers regular Caddo language classes, in addition to creating dictionaries, phrase books, and other Caddo language resources. They have also made a long-term project of trying to record and digitally archive Caddoan oral traditions, which are an important part of Caddo culture. As of 2010,

900-708: Is situated at the confluence of the Neches and Angelina Rivers protecting 12,636 acres of the river's floodplain and bottomland, administered by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department along with the adjacent Martin Dies Jr. State Park on the eastern side of Lake B. A. Steinhagen. South of the Lake, beginning at Town Bluff Dam and running 56 miles south to Beaumont, is the Neches River Corridor Unit of

960-631: The Big Thicket National Preserve , administered by the National Park Service . The Big Thicket National Preserve is recognized as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO , preserving an area where several ecosystems converge. The Big Thicket Visitor Center is off U.S. Highway 69 several miles north of Kountze , Texas. Beginning in 2006, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service purchased land along

1020-657: The Brazos Reservation . White settlers increased pressure for the Brazos Reservation Indians to move north to Indian Territory. White Texans violently attacked a Caddo encampment just off the reservation on December 26, 1858. Captain Peter Garland from Erath County led this vigilante group. Choctaw Tom led the Caddo. Married to a Hasinai woman, Tom was killed in this fight, along with two other Caddos and five Anadarkos. In 1859, many of

1080-588: The Caddo Nation of Oklahoma , a federally recognized tribe headquartered in Binger, Oklahoma . They speak the Caddo language . The Caddo Confederacy was a network of Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands , who historically inhabited much of what is now northeast Texas, west Louisiana , southwestern Arkansas , and southeastern Oklahoma . Prior to European contact, they were

1140-819: The Caddo River . When they first encountered Europeans and Africans, the Caddo tribes organized themselves in three confederacies: the Natchitoches , Hasinai , and Kadohadacho . They were loosely affiliated with other neighboring tribes including the Yowani Choctaw . The Natchitoches lived in now northern Louisiana, the Haisinai lived in East Texas , and the Kadohadacho lived near the border of Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The Caddo people had

1200-622: The Caddoan Mississippian culture , who constructed huge earthwork mounds at several sites in this territory, flourishing about 800 to 1400 CE. In the early 19th century, Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas. In 1859, they were removed to Indian Territory . The Caddo Nation of Oklahoma was previously known as the Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma. The tribal constitution provides for election of an eight-person council, with

1260-533: The Caddoan Mississippian culture . Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers. Leaders directed the construction of major earthworks known as platform mounds , which served as temple mounds and platforms for residences of the elite. The flat-topped mounds were arranged around leveled, large, open plazas , which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family lineages gained prominence over others. By 1000 CE,

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1320-724: The Creek , also known as Muscogee. Tensions within their tribe resulted in near civil war among the Creek. Due to the Caddo's neutrality and their importance as a source of information for the Louisiana Territory government, the US forces left them alone. But following Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 under President Andrew Jackson, the federal government embarked on a program of removal of tribes from

1380-819: The Native American Church today. Congress passed the Dawes Act to promote assimilation of tribes in Indian Territory and to extinguish Indian land claims to enable admission of the territory as a state. It authorized the break up and distribution of tribal communal landholdings into 160-acre allotments for individual households in order for them to establish subsistence family farms along the European-American model. Any tribal lands remaining after such allotments were to be declared "surplus" and sold, including to non-Native Americans. At

1440-549: The Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky . The powerful Iroquois took control of hunting grounds in the area. The Osage in particular fought the Caddo, pushed them out of some former territory, and became dominant in the region of present-day Missouri , Arkansas , and eastern Kansas . These tribes had become settled in their new territory west of the Mississippi prior to mid-18th-century European contact. Most of

1500-562: The Sabine-Neches Waterway project is $ 1.1 billion. Several petro-chemical plants are located in the river's southern section. The Sabine-Neches Navigation District , formed in 1909, has management responsibilities of the portion of the river which is part of the Sabine-Neches Waterway. Caddo language Caddo is a Native American language, the traditional language of the Caddo Nation . It

1560-483: The /j/. (Melnar includes a third palatization process, /tj/ → [ts]. However, /ts/ is not a palatal affricate so it has not been included here. Nevertheless, the third process probably occurs.) Caddo has three processes by which a syllable nucleus (vowel) may be lengthened: The Caddo word táy:sha’ [tə́jːʃaʔ] , meaning "ally" or "friend," is the ultimate origin of the place name Texas . Caddo Caddo Confederacy : The Caddo people comprise

1620-591: The 12th and 13th centuries. The Spiro Mounds , near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma, were some of the most elaborate mounds in the United States. They were made by Mississippian ancestors of the historic Caddo and Wichita tribes, in what is considered the westernmost area of the Mississippian culture . The Caddo were farmers and enjoyed good growing conditions most of

1680-408: The 18th and 19th centuries. These stations attracted more French and other European settlers. Among such settlements are the present-day communities of Elysian Fields and Nacogdoches, Texas , and Natchitoches, Louisiana . In the latter two towns, early explorers and settlers kept the original Caddo names of the villages. Having given way over years before the power of the former Ohio Valley tribes,

1740-422: The 20th century, Caddo leaders such as Melford Williams, Harry Guy, Hubert Halfmoon, and Vernon Hunter have helped shape the tribe. In the early 1980s, Mary Pat Francis was the first woman to be elected as tribal chair. Her daughter, Tamara Michele Francis, was elected in 2015, following a time of high divisions. She was re-elected in 2016. In a special election on June 29, 2002, the tribe adopted six amendments to

1800-739: The Anglo-Americans declared independence from Mexico and established the Republic of Texas , an independent nation. The name "Texas" is derived from the Hasinai word táysha , through the Spanish Tejas , meaning "friend". On December 29, 1845, the US admitted Texas as a state. At that time, the US federal government forced the Hasinai and the Kadohadacho, as well as remnants of allied Delaware ( Lenape ) and Yowani to relocate onto

1860-562: The Caddo historically lived in the Piney Woods ecoregion of the United States, divided among the state regions of East Texas, southern Arkansas, western Louisiana, and southeastern Oklahoma. This region extends up to the foothills of the Ozarks . The Piney Woods are a dense forest of deciduous and pinophyta flora covering rolling hills, steep river valleys, and intermittent wetlands called " bayous ". Caddo people primarily settled near

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1920-491: The Caddo language. The Caddo are thought to be an extension of Woodland period peoples, the Fourche Maline and Mossy Grove cultures , whose members were living in the area of Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas areas between 200 BCE and 800 CE. The Wichita and Pawnee are also related to the Caddo, since both tribes historically spoke Caddoan languages . By 800 CE, this society had begun to coalesce into

1980-478: The Caddo peoples had no acquired immunity to such new diseases, they suffered epidemics with high fatalities that destroyed the tribal populations. Influenza and malaria were additional new diseases that caused many deaths among the Caddo. French traders built their trading posts and associated forts near Caddo villages. These were already important hubs in the Great Plains trading network well before

2040-619: The Caddo were relocated to Indian Territory north of Texas (which became as state of Oklahoma in 1907). After the Civil War , the Caddo were concentrated on a reservation located between the Washita and Canadian rivers in Indian Territory. In the late 19th century, the Caddo adopted the Ghost Dance religion, which was widespread among American Indian nations in the West. John Wilson ,

2100-563: The Neches River for the creation of the Neches River National Wildlife Refuge . The refuge includes land on which the city of Dallas had proposed to build a reservoir to meet the water needs of the city and its surrounding suburbs . Tentatively named Lake Fastrill, this reservoir was not scheduled to be built until 2050. The city of Dallas and the Texas Water Development Board filed a lawsuit in 2007 against

2160-606: The Neches River in Tyler , Hardin , Liberty , Chambers , and Jefferson counties of Texas. The lower forty miles of the river is industrialized, from the Beaumont Interstate 10 bridge to Sabine Lake. The river is maintained as a deep water ship channel running between the Port of Beaumont to Sabine Lake . Currently 40 feet deep and 400 ft wide, the river is being deepened to 48 feet. The total estimated cost of

2220-535: The Pawnee-Kitsai (Keechi) languages ( Arikara , Kitsai , and Pawnee ) and the Wichita language. Kitsai and Wichita are now extinct, and Pawnee and Arikara each have fewer surviving speakers than Caddo does. Another language, Adai , is postulated to have been a Caddoan language while it was extant, but because of scarce resources and the language's extinct status, this connection is not conclusive, and Adai

2280-624: The Southeast in order to enable European-American settlement. Land-hungry migrants pressed from the east. In 1835 the Kadohadacho , the northernmost Caddo confederacy, signed a treaty with the US to relocate to independent Mexico (which then included present-day Texas). The area for their reservation in East Texas had been lightly settled by Mexican colonists, but there was rapidly increasing immigration of European Americans here. In 1836,

2340-536: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, claiming the wildlife refuge was established without considering the economic and environmental impacts. However, in February 2010 the United States Supreme Court ruled in favor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, paving the way for the acquisition of lands for the wildlife refuge. The Lower Neches Valley Authority is the river authority which oversees

2400-524: The art of tattooing to decorate their bodies. Such tattoos covered most of the body, including the face. The Caddo first encountered Europeans and Africans in 1541 when the Spanish Hernando de Soto Expedition came through their lands. De Soto's force had a violent clash with one band of Caddo Indians, the Tula people , near present-day Caddo Gap, Arkansas . This historic event has been marked by

2460-518: The case of proclitics (morphemes that behave like an affix and are phonologically dependent on the morpheme to which they are attached). An example is the English articles. Caddo has a glottalization process by which any voiceless stop or affricate (except p) becomes an ejective when it is followed by a glottal stop . Caddo has a palatalization process that affects certain consonants when they are followed by /j/, with simultaneous loss of

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2520-449: The chart. Caddo also has four diphthongs , which can be written a number of different ways; the transcription below shows the typical Caddo Nation orthography (a vowel paired with a glide) and the IPA version, represented with vowels and offglides. Caddo has three lexical tones : a low tone (e.g. /ù/), unmarked in the orthography ⟨u⟩; a high tone (e.g. /ú/), marked by an acute accent over

2580-474: The constitution. Tribal enrollment is open to individuals with a documented minimum of 1/16 degree Caddo blood quantum . Sometimes, severe disagreements have developed among factions of the tribe that have not been resolved in elections. In August 2013, a group led by Philip Smith attempted to recall Brenda Shemayme Edwards, the chairman of the Tribal Council. This faction conducted a new election, but

2640-511: The federal Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936, the Caddo restored their tribal government. They adopted a written constitution and a process of electing officials. They organized in 1938 as the 'Caddo Indian Tribe of Oklahoma.' They ratified their constitution on 17 January 1938. In 1976, they drafted a new constitution, which continues elected representative government. During

2700-444: The fourth elected female leader of the Caddo Nation. As of 2021 the tribal council consists of: The tribe has several programs to invigorate Caddo culture. It sponsors a summer culture camp for children. The Hasinai Society and Caddo Culture Club both teach and perform Caddo songs and dances to keep the culture alive and pass it on to the next generations. The Kiwat Hasinay Foundation is dedicated to preserving and increasing use of

2760-648: The historic Caddo people and related Caddo-language speakers, such as the Pawnee and Wichita , who encountered the first Europeans, as well as of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma. The Caddo creation story , as told in their oral history , says the tribe emerged from a cave, called Chahkanina or "the place of crying," located at the confluence of the Red River of the South and Mississippi River (in northern present-day Louisiana). Their leader, named Moon, instructed

2820-434: The language, share their resources through community events and programs, and develop a curriculum to teach the language. Caddo has 19 contrastive consonants , a normal-sized consonant inventory. It is somewhat unusual in that it lacks liquid consonants . The IPA symbols for the consonants of Caddo are given below: Caddo also features contrastive gemination of consonants, which is generally indicated in orthography by

2880-615: The later Caddo negotiated for peace with the waves of Spanish, French, and finally Anglo-American settlers. After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase , by which the United States took over the former French colonial territory west of the Mississippi River , the US government sought to ally with the Caddo peoples. During the War of 1812 , American generals such as William Henry Harrison , William Clark , and Andrew Jackson crushed pro-British uprisings among other Southeast Indians, in particular

2940-409: The modern town with a monument. The Spanish were considered outsiders. All Franciscan missions were set up in peripheral locations in relation to temples complexes which were the center of the Caddo's world. The Caddos didn't want to move near the missions because they would abandon their sacred fires. According to Fray Isidro Felix de Espinosa, the Caddo believed "our [Spanish] fire is different." On

3000-522: The people not to look back. An old Caddo man carried a drum, a pipe, and fire, all of which have continued to be important religious items to the people. His wife carried corn and pumpkin seeds. As people and accompanying animals emerged, the wolf looked back. The exit from the underground closed to the remaining people and animals. The Caddo peoples moved west along the Red River, which they called Bah'hatteno in Caddo. A Caddo woman, Zacado, instructed

3060-466: The present stage of research, the processes seem to be unrelated, but they represent a phonetic reduction in consonant clusters; therefore, they are listed below without much further explanation. Similar to the consonant cluster simplification process, there are four processes by which a syllable-final consonant is altered: There are three word-boundary processes in Caddo, all of which occur word-initially: Such processes are generally not applicable in

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3120-677: The public as recently as 2019. Downstream, the river delineates the eastern border of Davy Crockett National Forest including more than nine miles of the Big Slough Wilderness Area of the National Forest. Further downstream the Neches defines much of the southern border of Angelina National Forest including roughly four miles of the Upland Island and Longleaf Pine Wilderness Area of Angelina National Forest. The Angelina Neches/Dam B Wildlife Management Area

3180-453: The same time, tribal governments were to be ended, and Native Americans were to be accepted as US citizens, subject to state and federal laws. Numerous European Americans had already settled outside the tribal territories. The Caddo vigorously opposed allotment. Whitebread, a Caddo leader, said, "because of their peaceful lives and friendship to the white man, and through their ignorance were not consulted, and have been ignored and stuck away in

3240-484: The time. The Piney Woods , the geographic area where they lived, was affected by the Great Drought from 1276 to 1299 CE, which covered an area extending to present-day California and disrupted many Native American cultures. Archeological evidence has confirmed that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present among these peoples. The Caddoan Mississippian people were the direct ancestors of

3300-459: The tribe in hunting, fishing, building dwellings, and making clothing. Caddo religion focuses on Kadhi háyuh , translating to "Leader Above" or "Leader in the Sky." In early times, the people were led by priests, including a head priest, the xinesi , who could commune with spirits residing near Caddo temples. A cycle of ceremonies developed around important periods of seasonal corn cultivation. Tobacco

3360-672: The tribe. Elderly women planted and cultivated the seeds for the season's crop. Gathered items included corn , sunflowers , beans , melons , tobacco , and squash during the warm seasons. Acorns and roots were gathered and processed to provide food other than meat in the cold seasons when crops did not grow. The men used handcrafted bows and arrows to hunt animals such as wild turkey , quail , rabbits, bears, and bison during winter months. Most tools and items were made by women. They made wooden mortars , as well as pots and other utensils out of clay. These wood and clay tools were carved and molded to help with daily jobs like cooking meals for

3420-438: The tribe. These tools were viewed with such reverence that men and women were buried with the items that they had made. The Caddo also decorated their bodies. Men favored body modifications and ornamentation such as the painting of skin, jewelry, ear piercing, and hair decorations, like braids, adorned with bird feathers or animal fur. While the women of the tribe wore some jewelry and styled their hair similarly to men, most used

3480-485: The victor stepped down, and Edwards refused to leave office. In October 2013, Smith and his supporters broke into the Caddo Nation headquarters. They chained the front doors from the inside and blocked the entrance to the administration building. The opposition called the Bureau of Indian Affairs Police . Operation of the tribe was split between two factions. The Court of Indian Offenses, which had been overseeing issues for

3540-442: The vowel ⟨ú⟩; and falling tone, which always occurs on long vowels (e.g. /ûː/) and is marked by a grave accent over the vowel ⟨ù꞉⟩. Tone occurs both lexically (as a property of the word), non-lexically (as a result of tonological processes), and also as a marker of certain morphological features. For instance, the past tense marker is associated with high tone. There are three processes that can create non-lexical high tone within

3600-532: Was also cultivated, and was and is used ceremonially. Early priests drank a purifying sacrament drink made of wild olive leaves. Centuries before extensive European contact, some of the Caddo territory was invaded by migrating Dhegihan Siouan–speaking peoples: the Osage , Ponca , Omaha , Quapaw , and Kaw . They moved west beginning about 1200 CE after years of warfare with the Haudenosaunee nations in

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