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94-409: Basic needs such as air, water, food and protection from environmental dangers are necessary for an organism to live. In addition to basic needs , humans also have needs of a social or societal nature such as the human need for purpose , to socialize, to belong to a family or community or other group. Needs can be objective and physical, such as the need for food, or psychical and subjective, such as

188-535: A goal , giving purpose and direction to behavior. The most widely known academic model of needs was proposed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in his hierarchy of needs in 1943. His theory proposed that people have a hierarchy of psychological needs, which range from basic physiological or lower order needs such as food, water and safety (e.g. shelter) through to the higher order needs such as self-actualization. People tend to spend most of their resources (time, energy and finances) attempting to satisfy these basic before

282-490: A "needy" person—will function poorly in society. In the view of Gough and Doyal, every person has an objective interest in avoiding serious harm that prevents that person from endeavoring to attain their vision of what is good, regardless of what exactly that may be. That endeavour requires a capacity to participate in the societal setting in which the individual lives. More specifically, every person needs to possess both physical health and personal autonomy. The latter involves

376-470: A "remarkably wide ranging and nuanced treatise on the interplay between emotions and law". A prominent exception was Roger Kimball 's review published in The New Criterion , in which he accused Nussbaum of "fabricating" the renewed prevalence of shame and disgust in public discussions and says she intends to "undermine the inherited moral wisdom of millennia". He rebukes her for "contempt for

470-463: A $ 1 increase in food stamp payments also increases GDP by $ 1.73. The current benefits of SNAP, however, is threatened by proposals to cut funding and limit eligibility requirements. In the recent passing of the Farm Bill, there were attempts to limit eligibility and reduce benefits, which would affect about 2 million people. Ultimately, overall bipartisan support kept the total funding and prevented

564-658: A 2008 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the rate of poverty in Canada, is among the highest of the OECD member nations, the world's wealthiest industrialized nations. There is no official government definition and therefore, measure, for poverty in Canada. However, Dennis Raphael, author of Poverty in Canada: Implications for Health and Quality of Life reported that

658-621: A Master of Arts degree in 1972 and a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1975, studying under G. E. L. Owen . In the 1970s and early 1980s she taught philosophy and classics at Harvard, where she was denied tenure by the Classics Department in 1982. Nussbaum then moved to Brown University , where she taught until 1995 when she joined the University of Chicago Law School faculty. Her 1986 book The Fragility of Goodness , on ancient Greek ethics and Greek tragedy, made her

752-449: A basic right to dignity. To provide human dignity, she states that governments must provide "at least a threshold level" of the following capabilities: life; bodily health; bodily integrity; senses, imagination, and thought, emotions; practical reason; affiliation; other species; play; and control over one's environment, including political and material environments. She was married to Alan Nussbaum from 1969 until they divorced in 1987,

846-519: A basis for defense and reform of the liberal education . Noting the Greek cynic philosopher Diogenes ' aspiration to transcend "local origins and group memberships" in favor of becoming "a citizen of the world ", Nussbaum traces the development of this idea through the Stoics , Cicero , and eventually the classical liberalism of Adam Smith and Immanuel Kant . Nussbaum champions multiculturalism in

940-827: A candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature . Nussbaum was born Martha Craven on May 6, 1947, in New York City, the daughter of George Craven, a Philadelphia lawyer, and Betty Warren, an interior designer and homemaker. During her teenage years, Nussbaum attended The Baldwin School in Bryn Mawr . She described her upbringing as "East Coast WASP elite ... very sterile, very preoccupied with money and status". She would later credit her impatience with "mandarin philosophers" and dedication to public service as

1034-539: A decade. They had been engaged to be married. She had previously had a romantic relationship with Amartya Sen . The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy confronts the ethical dilemma that individuals strongly committed to justice are nevertheless vulnerable to external factors that may deeply compromise or even negate their human flourishing . Discussing literary as well as philosophical texts, Nussbaum seeks to determine

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1128-480: A fifth to two-thirds of American college students. This was more prevalent among Black and Latino communities, students in households that receive less than $ 20,000 in income, students with dependents, and former foster youth. They were reported to be skipping meals and purchasing cheaper foods, usually processed and unhealthy. These food pantries were founded by student leaders who advocated to improve food security and who also experienced food insecurity themselves. In

1222-449: A hierarchy. Rosenberg's model supports people developing awareness of feelings as indicators, of what needs are alive within them and others, moment by moment; to forefront needs, to make it more likely and possible for two or more people, to arrive at mutually agreed upon strategies to meet the needs of all parties. Rosenberg diagrams this sequence in part like this: Observations > Feelings > Needs > Requests where identifying needs

1316-493: A lack of income. Another project that started within the community is food pantries on college campuses. Food pantries were created to provide food at no cost and decrease food insecurity among students . In 2008, issues of food insecurity and homelessness among students were recognized by student affairs professionals due to the increasing tuition costs. A rising number of students especially in community colleges were experiencing food insecurity or homelessness, reaching between

1410-450: A larger tendency to live in food deserts. This makes them more prone to health issues and nutrition deprivation. Studies directly investigating shopping behavior of low-income residents disclose that their shopping decisions depend more on price, quality, staff, and similarities to other shoppers than simply the location of the store. The studies show that income is a more urgent reason than distance. Despite these studies and calls for reform,

1504-436: A lengthy article called "Platonic Love and Colorado Law". Nussbaum used multiple references from Plato's Symposium and his interactions with Socrates as evidence for her argument. The debate continued with a reply by one of her sternest critics, Robert P. George . Nussbaum has criticized Noam Chomsky as being among the leftist intellectuals who hold the belief that "one should not criticize one's friends, that solidarity

1598-429: A patient needs; treatment that may be desirable;and treatment that could be deemed frivolous. At one end of this spectrum for example, any practising clinician would accept that a child with fulminating meningococcal meningitis needs rapid access to medical care. At the other end, rarely could a young healthy woman be deemed to need breast augmentation. Numerous surgical procedures fall into this spectrum: particularly, this

1692-695: A period which also led to her conversion to Judaism and the birth of her daughter Rachel. Nussbaum's interest in Judaism has continued and deepened: on August 16, 2008, she became a bat mitzvah in a service at Temple K. A. M. Isaiah Israel in Chicago's Hyde Park , chanting from the Parashah Va-etchanan and the Haftarah Nahamu , and delivering a D'var Torah about the connection between genuine, non- narcissistic consolation and

1786-522: A portion of her Berggruen Prize winnings to fund a series of roundtable discussions on controversial issues at the University of Chicago Law School. These discussions will be known as the Martha C. Nussbaum Student Roundtables. Nussbaum is well known for her contributions in developing the capabilities approach to well-being, alongside Amartya Sen . The key question the capabilities approach asks

1880-462: A qualitative theory on capabilities. She criticizes existing economic indicators like GDP as failing to fully account for quality of life and assurance of basic needs, instead rewarding countries with large growth distributed highly unequally across the population. The book also aims to serve as an introduction to the Capability approach more generally; it is accessible to students and newcomers to

1974-466: A rubric of social justice. Nussbaum discusses at length the feminist critiques of liberalism itself, including the charge advanced by Alison Jaggar that liberalism demands ethical egoism . Nussbaum notes that liberalism emphasizes respect for others as individuals, and further argues that Jaggar has elided the distinction between individualism and self-sufficiency. Nussbaum accepts Catharine MacKinnon 's critique of abstract liberalism, assimilating

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2068-536: A senior fellow of the Fraser Institute , uses Statistics Canada 's socio-economic databases, particularly the Survey of Household Spending to determine the cost of a list of household necessities. The list includes food , shelter, clothing , health care , personal care , essential furnishings , transportation and communication , laundry , home insurance , and miscellaneous; it assumes that education

2162-473: A tool of objectification puts Nussbaum at odds with sex-positive feminism . At the same time, Nussbaum argues in support of the legalization of prostitution, a position she reiterated in a 2008 essay following the Spitzer scandal , writing: "The idea that we ought to penalize women with few choices by removing one of the ones they do have is grotesque." Sex and Social Justice was highly praised by critics in

2256-513: A well-known figure throughout the humanities. At Brown, Nussbaum's students included philosopher Linda Martín Alcoff and actor and playwright Tim Blake Nelson . In 1987, she gained public attention due to her critique of fellow philosopher Allan Bloom 's The Closing of the American Mind . More recent work ( Frontiers of Justice ) establishes Nussbaum as a theorist of global justice. Nussbaum's work on capabilities has often focused on

2350-552: A year is considered below the poverty line. This amount is enough to cover living and transportation payments, bills, food, and clothing. In the United States, 13.1 percent of the population are reported to fall below the poverty level. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program , or SNAP, (formerly known as the Food Stamp Program) distributes food vouchers to households with incomes that fall within 130% of

2444-452: Is "What is each person able to do and to be?" As such, the approach looks at combined capabilities: an individual's developable abilities ( internal abilities ), freedom, and opportunity. Here, "freedom" refers to the ability of a person to choose one life or another, and opportunity refers to social, political, and/or economic conditions that allow or disallow individual growth. Nussbaum asserts that all humans (and non-human animals) have

2538-435: Is a "politics of disgust". These legal restrictions include blocking sexual orientation being protected under anti-discrimination laws (see Romer v. Evans ), sodomy laws against consenting adults (see Lawrence v. Texas ), constitutional bans against same-sex marriage (see California Proposition 8 (2008) ). Nussbaum also argues that legal bans on conducts, such as nude dancing in private clubs, nudity on private beaches,

2632-408: Is a federal grant program that runs under a specific amount of funds by the government, meaning not everyone who is qualified will receive benefits. WIC was first introduced in 1972 and became permanent in 1974. This program helps approximately 7.3 million participants each month and is reported to support 53% of infants born in the United States. In 2017, annual costs were $ 5.6 billion. Like SNAP, WIC

2726-595: Is a member of the Committee on Southern Asian Studies, and a board member of the Human Rights Program. She previously taught at Harvard and Brown . She has written more than two dozen books , including The Fragility of Goodness (1986). She received the 2016 Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy , the 2018 Berggruen Prize , and the 2021 Holberg Prize . In recent years, she has also been considered

2820-476: Is an American philosopher and the current Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago , where she is jointly appointed in the law school and the philosophy department. Nussbaum's work has focused on ancient Greek and Roman philosophy , political philosophy , existentialism , feminism , and ethics, including animal rights . She also holds associate appointments in classics , divinity , and political science ,

2914-576: Is carried out by brute force, its irreversibility, its non-consensual nature, and its links to customs of male domination , Nussbaum urges feminists to confront female genital mutilation as an issue of injustice. Nussbaum also refines the concept of " objectification ", as originally advanced by Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin . Nussbaum defines the idea of treating as an object with seven qualities: instrumentality , denial of autonomy, inertness, fungibility , violability, ownership, and denial of subjectivity . Her characterization of pornography as

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3008-788: Is characterized by the fact that in the process of meeting their needs, humans develop new needs, implying that at least to some extent they make and remake their own nature. This idea is discussed in more detail by the Hungarian philosopher Ágnes Heller in A Theory of Need in Marx (London: Allison and Busby, 1976). Political economy professor Michael Lebowitz has developed the Marxian interpretation of needs further in two editions of his book Beyond Capital . Professor György Márkus systematised Marx's ideas about needs as follows: humans are different from other animals because their vital activity, work,

3102-587: Is in itself irrational, because we cannot transcend the animality of our bodies. Noting how projective disgust has wrongly justified group subordination (mainly of women, Jews, and homosexuals), Nussbaum ultimately discards disgust as a reliable basis of judgment. In an interview with Reason magazine, Nussbaum elaborated: Disgust and shame are inherently hierarchical ; they set up ranks and orders of human beings. They are also inherently connected with restrictions on liberty in areas of non-harmful conduct. For both of these reasons, I believe, anyone who cherishes

3196-405: Is mediated to the satisfaction of needs (an animal who manufactures tools to produce other tools or his/her satisfactory), which makes a human being a universal natural being capable to turn the whole nature into the subject of his/her needs and his/her activity, and develops his/her needs and abilities (essential human forces) and develops himself/herself, a historical-universal being. Work generates

3290-493: Is more important than ethical correctness". She suggests that one can "trace this line to an old Marxist contempt for bourgeois ethics, but it is loathsome whatever its provenance". Among her academic colleagues whose books she has reviewed critically are Allan Bloom , Harvey Mansfield , and Judith Butler . Other academic debates have been with figures such as John Rawls , Richard Posner , and Susan Moller Okin . In January 2019, Nussbaum announced that she would be using

3384-458: Is most significant to the process. People also talk about the needs of a community or organisation. Such needs might include demand for a particular type of business, for a certain government program or entity, or for individuals with particular skills. This is an example of metonymy in language and presents with the logical problem of reification . Medical needs. In clinical medical practice, it may be difficult to distinguish between treatment

3478-429: Is provided freely to all residents of Canada. This is calculated for various communities across Canada and adjusted for family size. With this information, he determines the proportion of Canadian households that have insufficient income to afford those necessities. Based on his basic needs poverty threshold , the poverty rate in Canada, the poverty rate has declined from about 12% of Canadian households to about 5% since

3572-513: Is researched to also be highly effective for its participants. Benefits of WIC is associated with less premature and infant deaths and fewer occasions of low birthrates. Economically, $ 1.77 to $ 3.13 is saved in health care costs for each dollar invested in WIC. The Healthy Food Financing Initiative (HFFI) addresses place-based theories of poverty, aiming to develop grocery store chains in low-income communities and improve access to nutritious food. In

3666-477: Is so in our ageing Western population, where there is an ever-increasing prevalence of painful, but not life-threatening disorders: typified by the ageing spine. Basic needs The basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries globally. It works to define the absolute minimum resources necessary for long-term physical well-being , usually in terms of consumption goods . The poverty line

3760-680: Is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy the needs of the people. The "basic needs" approach was introduced by the International Labour Organization's World Employment Conference in 1976. "Perhaps the high point of the WEP was the World Employment Conference of 1976, which proposed the satisfaction of basic human needs as the overriding objective of national and international development policy. The basic needs approach to development

3854-563: The Capability approach or the Human development approach. Nussbaum draws on theories of other notable advocates of the Capability approach like Amartya Sen , but has a distinct approach. She proposes to choose a list of capabilities based on some aspects of John Rawls' concept of "central human capabilities." Nussbaum's book combines ideas from the Capability approach , development economics , and distributive justice to substantiate

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3948-505: The New Directions for Community Colleges , an academic journal, Jarrett Gupton observed food pantries and other solutions that benefited students. Because food pantries are limited due to the amount of food, staff, and hours of availability, Gupton suggests increasing students’ food literacy and utilizing community gardens, co-ops, and having affordable on-campus food plans. Although these nongovernmental approaches are beneficial to

4042-842: The United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Canadian poverty researchers find that relative poverty is the "most useful measure for ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed nations such as Canada." In its report released the Conference Board According to the US Department of Health and Human Services, an individual who makes $ 12,760

4136-464: The harm principle from John Stuart Mill as the proper basis for limiting individual liberties. Nussbaum argues the harm principle, which supports the legal ideas of consent , the age of majority , and privacy , protects citizens while the "politics of disgust" is merely an unreliable emotional reaction with no inherent wisdom. Furthermore, Nussbaum argues this "politics of disgust" has denied and continues to deny citizens humanity and equality before

4230-578: The "repudiation of my own aristocratic upbringing. I don't like anything that sets itself up as an in-group or an elite, whether it is the Bloomsbury group or Derrida ". After studying at Wellesley College for two years, she dropped out to pursue theatre in New York. She studied theatre and classics at New York University , getting a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1969, and gradually moved to philosophy while at Harvard University , where she received

4324-517: The 1970s. This is in sharp contrast to the results of Statistic Canada, Conference Board of Canada , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and UNESCO reports using the relative poverty measure considered to the most useful for advanced industrial nations like Canada, which Sarlo rejects. OECD and UNICEF rate Canada's poverty rate much higher using a relative poverty threshold. Statistics Canada's LICO, which Sarlo also rejects, also result in higher poverty rates. According to

4418-526: The 1980s, the government addressed the extreme food insecurity in the US, leading to improvements like the sales tax elimination on food stamps. SNAP became eligible to the homeless and grew in resources, including nutrition education. 2013 marked their highest recipient rate, gradually decreasing to 42 million people in 2017. SNAP is the largest part of the government's Farm Bill, which is passed by Congress every five years. After much debate on funding, Congress passed

4512-488: The 2002 University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Education for Cultivating Humanity . Sex and Social Justice argues that sex and sexuality are morally irrelevant distinctions that have been artificially enforced as sources of social hierarchy ; thus, feminism and social justice have common concerns. Rejecting anti-universalist objections, Nussbaum proposes functional freedoms, or central human capabilities, as

4606-482: The 2008 and pending 2015 entries on Human Needs: Overview in the Encyclopedia of Social Work. In his 1844 Paris Manuscripts , Karl Marx famously defined humans as "creatures of need" or "needy creatures" who experienced suffering in the process of learning and working to meet their needs. These needs were both physical needs as well as moral, emotional and intellectual needs. According to Marx, human development

4700-534: The Cambridge Journal of Economics of the final version of this work, Gough discussed the Doyal/Gough theory in a working paper available online. The concept of intellectual need has been studied in education , as well as in social work , where an Oxford Bibliographies Online: Social Work entry on Human Need reviewed the literature as of 2008 on human need from a variety of disciplines. Also see

4794-570: The Colorado bench trial for Romer v. Evans , arguing against the claim that the history of philosophy provides the state with a "compelling interest" in favor of a law that sought to overturn local anti-discrimination laws. A portion of this testimony, dealing with the potential meanings of the term tolmêma in Plato's work, was the subject of controversy, and was called misleading and even perjurious by critics. She responded to these charges in

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4888-568: The Department. According to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), the idea is credited to Henry Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture, and Milo Perkins, the program's first Administrator. After the program was discontinued from 1943 to 1961, the Food Stamp Program gradually expanded and became permanent during President Johnson's term in 1964. The program eventually grew nationwide, accepting more people and becoming more accessible. In

4982-642: The Doyal/Gough Theory, see self-determination theory . A second view of need is presented in the work of political economy professor Ian Gough, who has published on the subject of human needs in the context of social assistance provided by the welfare state . Together with medical ethics professor Len Doyal , he published A Theory of Human Need in 1991. Their view goes beyond the emphasis on psychology: it might be said that an individual's needs represent "the costs of being human" within society. A person who does not have their needs fulfilled—i.e.,

5076-617: The Farm Bill in 2018, portioning $ 664 billion to mainly SNAP. SNAP is proven to be highly beneficial to its participants, preventing a majority of households from reaching below the poverty line. Data from the USDA indicates that children who participate in SNAP are connected to more positive health effects and economic outcomes. 10% of SNAP recipients are reported to rise above the poverty line, and economic self-sufficiency especially increases for women. Furthermore, research by Mark Zandi has shown that

5170-534: The Third talk of Livelihood section of Three Principles of the People ) sanitation , education , and healthcare . Different agencies use different lists. The basic needs approach has been described as consumption-oriented, giving the impression "that poverty elimination is all too easy." Amartya Sen focused on 'capabilities' rather than consumption. In the development discourse, the basic needs model focuses on

5264-435: The agent's own control, great significance for the person's own flourishing. On this basis, she has proposed analyses of grief, compassion, and love, and, in a later book, of disgust and shame. Nussbaum has engaged in debates with other intellectuals, in her academic writings as well as in the pages of semi-popular magazines and book reviews and, in one instance, when testifying as an expert witness in court. She testified in

5358-477: The average man". To Devlin, the mere fact some people or act may produce popular emotional reactions of disgust provides an appropriate guide for legislating. She also identifies the ' wisdom of repugnance ' as advocated by Leon Kass as another "politics of disgust" school of thought as it claims that disgust "in crucial cases ... repugnance is the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason's power fully to articulate it". Nussbaum goes on to explicitly oppose

5452-497: The banner of ' postmodernism .' Nussbaum is even more critical of figures like Allan Bloom , Roger Kimball , and George Will for what she considers their "shaky" knowledge of non-Western cultures and inaccurate caricatures of today's humanities departments. The New York Times praised Cultivating Humanity as "a passionate, closely argued defense of multiculturalism" and hailed it as "a formidable, perhaps definitive defense of diversity on American campuses". Nussbaum received

5546-597: The basic needs or absolute approach is important. The 1995 world summit on social development in Copenhagen had, as one of its principal declarations that all nations of the world should develop measures of both absolute and relative poverty and should gear national policies to "eradicate absolute poverty by a target date specified by each country in its national context." Professor Chris Sarlo, an economist at Nipissing University in North Bay, Ontario , Canada and

5640-541: The breach of the animal subject-object fusion, thus generating the possibility of human conscience and self-conscience, which tend to universality (the universal conscious being). A human being's conditions as a social being are given by work, but not only by work as it is not possible to live like a human being without a relationship with others: work is social because human beings work for each other with means and abilities produced by prior generations. Human beings are also free entities able to accomplish, during their lifetime,

5734-422: The capacity to make informed choices about what should be done and how to implement it. This requires mental health, cognitive skills, and opportunities to participate in society's activities and collective decision-making. How are such needs satisfied? Doyal and Gough point to twelve broad categories of "intermediate needs" that define how the needs for physical health and personal autonomy are fulfilled: How are

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5828-519: The concept of objective human needs and uses instead the concept of preferences . Marshall Rosenberg 's model of Compassionate Communication, also known as Nonviolent Communication (NVC) makes the distinction between universal human needs (what sustains and motivates human life) and specific strategies used to meet these needs. Feelings are seen as neither good nor bad, right nor wrong, but as indicators of when human needs are met or unmet. In contrast to Maslow, Rosenberg's model does not place needs in

5922-444: The concept of a disgust-based morality as an appropriate guide for legislating. Nussbaum notes that popular disgust has been used throughout history as a justification for persecution. Drawing upon her earlier work on the relationship between disgust and shame, Nussbaum notes that at various times, racism, antisemitism , and sexism , have all been driven by popular revulsion. In place of this "politics of disgust", Nussbaum argues for

6016-810: The context of ethical universalism , defends scholarly inquiry into race, gender, and human sexuality , and further develops the role of literature as narrative imagination into ethical questions. At the same time, Nussbaum also censured certain scholarly trends. She excoriated deconstructionist Jacques Derrida saying "on truth [he is] simply not worth studying for someone who has been studying Quine and Putnam and Davidson ". She cites Zhang Longxi, who labels Derrida's analysis of Chinese culture "pernicious" and without "evidence of serious study". More broadly, Nussbaum criticized Michel Foucault for his "historical incompleteness [and] lack of conceptual clarity", but nevertheless singled him out for providing "the only truly important work to have entered philosophy under

6110-782: The details of needs satisfaction determined? The authors point to rational identification of needs, using up-to-date scientific knowledge; consideration of the actual experiences of individuals in their everyday lives; and democratic decision-making. The satisfaction of human needs cannot be imposed "from above". This theory may be compared to the capability approach developed by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum . Individuals with more internal "assets" or "capacities" (e.g., education, mental health, physical strength, etc.) have more capabilities (i.e., more available choices, more positive freedom ). They are thus more able to escape or avoid poverty. Those individuals who possess more capabilities fulfill more of their needs. Pending publication in 2015 in

6204-412: The early 2000s, the metaphor of food deserts- low income communities that do not have access to grocery stores and nutritious foods- have been connected to health disparities. More than 29 million of US residents are reported to live in neighborhoods that resemble a food desert. The concept of the food desert has been increasingly linked to spatial reasons of poverty. It was understood that the food desert

6298-489: The extent to which reason may enable self-sufficiency. She eventually rejects the Platonic notion that human goodness can fully protect against peril, siding with the tragic playwrights and Aristotle in treating the acknowledgment of vulnerability as a key to realizing the human good. Her interpretation of Plato 's Symposium in particular drew considerable attention. Under Nussbaum's consciousness of vulnerability,

6392-465: The federal poverty threshold. They support approximately 40 million people, including low income workers, unemployed citizens, and disabled heads of household. This program is an entitlement program, meaning if anyone is qualified, they will receive the benefits. The Food Stamp Program, the former name of SNAP, first began as a temporary program under President Roosevelt's (FDR) administration in 1939, allowing its recipients to buy surplus food determined by

6486-498: The few entitlement programs that need to be expanded. In the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research , Laura Wolf-Powers criticizes HFFI, arguing that these policies imply that the origins of food insecurity mainly derive from geographical reasons. She and other scholars claim that income-centered policies would be significantly more effective. Wolf provides evidence that families with lower incomes have

6580-417: The higher order needs of belonging, esteem and self-actualization become meaningful. Maslow's approach is a generalised model for understanding human motivations in a wide variety of contexts but must be adapted for specific contexts. While intuitively appealing, Maslow's model has been difficult to operationalize experimentally. It was developed further by Clayton Alderfer . The academic study of needs, which

6674-418: The inevitable consequence of mistaking suffering for cruelty". Hiding from Humanity extends Nussbaum's work in moral psychology to probe the arguments for including two emotions— shame and disgust —as legitimate bases for legal judgments. Nussbaum argues that individuals tend to repudiate their bodily imperfection or animality through the projection of fears about contamination. This cognitive response

6768-416: The journal illustrates the government's unwillingness to reform policies toward income redistribution and wage floors. The scholars notice optimistic changes in 2016, when 19 states established minimum wages, increasing economic self-sufficiency. This study seeks to criticize the government's spatial approach using investments and avoidance of income policies and labels the primary source of food insecurity as

6862-522: The key democratic values of equality and liberty should be deeply suspicious of the appeal to those emotions in the context of law and public policy . Nussbaum's work was received with wide praise. The Boston Globe called her argument "characteristically lucid" and hailed her as "America's most prominent philosopher of public life". Her reviews in national newspapers and magazines garnered unanimous praise. In academic circles, Stefanie A. Lindquist of Vanderbilt University lauded Nussbaum's analysis as

6956-483: The law on no rational grounds and causes palpable social harms to the groups affected. From Disgust to Humanity earned acclaim from liberal American publications, and prompted interviews in The New York Times and other magazines. It was criticized by a conservative magazine, The American Spectator . The book Creating Capabilities , first published in 2011, outlines a unique theory regarding

7050-514: The material because of the current lack of general knowledge about this approach. Finally, Nussbaum compares her approach with other popular approaches to human development and economic welfare, including Utilitarianism , Rawlsian Justice , and Welfarism in order to argue why the Capability approach should be prioritized by development economics policymakers. Nussbaum is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1988) and

7144-467: The measurement of what is believed to be an eradicable level of poverty . Development programs following the basic needs approach do not invest in economically productive activities that will help a society carry its own weight in the future, rather they focus on ensuring each household meets its basic needs even if economic growth must be sacrificed today. These programs focus more on subsistence than fairness. Nevertheless, in terms of "measurement",

7238-436: The need for self-esteem . Understanding both kinds of "unmet needs" is improved by considering the social context of their not being fulfilled. Needs and wants are a matter of interest in, and form a common substrate for, the fields of philosophy , biology , psychology , social science , economics , marketing and politics . To most psychologists, need is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward

7332-548: The objective possibilities generated by social evolution, on the basis of their conscious decisions. Freedom should be understood both in a negative (freedom to decide and to establish relationships) and a positive sense (dominion over natural forces and development of human creativity) of the essential human forces. To sum up, the essential interrelated traits of human beings are: a) work is their vital activity; b) human beings are conscious beings; c) human beings are social beings; d) human beings tend to universality, which manifests in

7426-632: The opinions of ordinary people" and ultimately accuses Nussbaum herself of "hiding from humanity". Nussbaum has recently drawn on and extended her work on disgust to produce a new analysis of the legal issues regarding sexual orientation and same-sex conduct. Her book From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and the Constitution was published by Oxford University Press in 2009, as part of their "Inalienable Rights" series, edited by Geoffrey Stone. In her 2010 book From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and Constitutional Law , Nussbaum analyzes

7520-501: The popular media. Camille Paglia credited Fragility with matching "the highest academic standards" of the twentieth century, and The Times Higher Education called it "a supremely scholarly work". Nussbaum's reputation extended her influence beyond print and into television programs like PBS's Bill Moyers . Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education appeals to classical Greek texts as

7614-483: The possession and consumption of alcohol in seclusion, gambling in seclusion or in a private club, which remain on the books, partake of the politics of disgust and should be overturned. She identifies the "politics of disgust" closely with Lord Devlin and his famous opposition to the Wolfenden report , which recommended decriminalizing private consensual homosexual acts, on the basis that those things would "disgust

7708-636: The press. Salon declared: "She shows brilliantly how sex is used to deny some people—i.e., women and gay men—social justice." The New York Times praised the work as "elegantly written and carefully argued". Kathryn Trevenen praised Nussbaum's effort to shift feminist concerns toward interconnected transnational efforts, and for explicating a set of universal guidelines to structure an agenda of social justice. Patrick Hopkins singled out for praise Nussbaum's "masterful" chapter on sexual objectification. Radical feminist Andrea Dworkin faulted Nussbaum for "consistent over-intellectualization of emotion, which has

7802-621: The program. In 2017, the House of Representatives proposed to cut $ 150 billion from SNAP's funding through 2026. However, the cuts were not enacted, and the original budget amount remained. These past threats to the funding of SNAP imply an uncertain future for its ongoing benefits. The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children , best known as the WIC program, offers referrals to health care, nutrition information, and nutritious foods to low-income women, infants, and children who are at risk of health issues. Unlike SNAP, WIC

7896-453: The proposals from being enacted. Along with this recent threat, there have been proposals to limit the programs in the past. In the mid-1990s, Congress imposed time limits for unemployed adults that were not disabled or raising children. In 2014, Republican representatives wanted to cut 5% of the program's funding, about $ 40 billion, for the next ten years. This did not pass, but funds were still cut by 1%, or $ 8.6 billion, creating limitations in

7990-562: The public and spreading awareness of these basic needs issues, these projects are limited and cannot reach everyone in need. This issue leads to debates about government reforms and adopting a Rights-based approach to development to combat basic needs insecurity. Basic Needs in Development Planning, Michael Hopkins and Rolph Van Der Hoeven (Gower, Aldershot, UK, 1983) Martha Nussbaum Martha Nussbaum ( / ˈ n ʊ s b ɔː m / ; née Craven; born May 6, 1947)

8084-510: The pursuit of global justice . Nussbaum's daughter Rachel died in 2019 due to a drug-resistant infection following successful transplant surgery. At the time of her death she was a government affairs attorney in the Wildlife Division of Friends of Animals , a nonprofit organization working for animal welfare. The two women had co-authored four articles about wild animals. Nussbaum dated and lived with Cass Sunstein for more than

8178-453: The re-entrance of Alcibiades at the end of the dialogue undermines Diotima 's account of the ladder of love in its ascent to the non-physical realm of the forms . Alcibiades's presence deflects attention back to physical beauty, sexual passions, and bodily limitations, hence highlighting human fragility. Fragility brought attention to Nussbaum throughout the humanities. It garnered wide praise in academic reviews, and even drew acclaim in

8272-524: The role that disgust plays in law and public debate in the United States. The book primarily analyzes constitutional legal issues facing gay and lesbian Americans but also analyzes issues such as anti-miscegenation statutes, segregation, antisemitism and the caste system in India as part of its broader thesis regarding the "politics of disgust". Nussbaum posits that the fundamental motivation of those advocating legal restrictions against gay and lesbian Americans

8366-430: The salience of history and context of group hierarchy and subordination, but concludes that this appeal is rooted in liberalism rather than a critique of it. Nussbaum condemns the practice of female genital mutilation , citing deprivation of normative human functioning in its risks to health, impact on sexual functioning, violations of dignity, and conditions of non- autonomy . Emphasizing that female genital mutilation

8460-550: The three previous traits and make human beings natural-historical-universal, social-universal and universal conscious entities, and e) human beings are free. In his texts about what he calls "moral economics", professor Julio Boltvinik Kalinka asserts that the ideas exposed by David Wiggins about needs are correct but insufficient: needs are of a normative nature but they are also factual. These "gross ethical concepts" (as stated by Hilary Putnam ) should also include an evaluation: Ross Fitzgerald 's criticism of Maslow's ideas rejects

8554-477: The unequal freedoms and opportunities of women, and she has developed a distinctive type of feminism , drawing inspiration from the liberal tradition, but emphasizing that liberalism, at its best, entails radical rethinking of gender relations and relations within the family. Nussbaum's other major area of philosophical work is the emotions. She defended a neo- Stoic account of emotions that holds that they are appraisals that ascribe to things and persons, outside

8648-404: Was at its zenith in the 1950s, receives less attention among psychologists today. One exception involves Richard Sennett 's work on the importance of respect . One difficulty with a psychological theory of needs is that conceptions of "need" may vary radically among different cultures or among different parts of the same society. For a psychological theory of human need, one found compatible with

8742-528: Was endorsed by governments and workers' and employers' organizations from all over the world. It influenced the programmes and policies of major multilateral and bilateral development agencies, and was the precursor to the human development approach." A traditional list of immediate "basic needs" is food (including water ), shelter and clothing . Many modern lists emphasize the minimum level of consumption of "basic needs" of not just food, water, clothing and shelter, but also transportation (as proposed in

8836-684: Was the main reason why there were nutritional concerns in these neighborhoods. In 2010, President Obama introduced HFFI, which was passed by Congress in 2014 through the Farm Bill. In the Oxford Academic journal, Social Work , Adriana Flores- a socialist advocate- brings attention to the limitations of government programs such as SNAP. Flores states that while the government assists people with food insecurity through SNAP, important basic needs like hygiene products are excluded, ultimately forcing low-income people to decide between hygiene items and other living payments. Flores considers SNAP as one of

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