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55-422: Nefertiti ( / ˌ n ɛ f ər ˈ t iː t i / ) ( c.  1370  – c.  1330 BC ) was a queen of the 18th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt , the great royal wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten . Nefertiti and her husband were known for their radical overhaul of state religious policy, in which they promoted the earliest known form of monotheism , Atenism , centered on the sun disc and its direct connection to

110-459: A monolatry (the depiction of a single god as an object for worship) or henotheism (one god, who is not the only god). The boundary stelae of years 4 and 5 mark the boundaries of the new city and suggest that the move to the new city of Akhetaten occurred around that time. The new city contained several large open-air temples dedicated to the Aten . Nefertiti and her family would have resided in

165-458: A Pharaoh, based on ushabti and other feminine evidence of a female pharaoh found in Tutankhamun's tomb , as well as evidence of Nefertiti smiting Egypt's enemies which was a duty reserved to kings. Pre-2012 Egyptological theories thought that Nefertiti vanished from the historical record around Year 12 of Akhenaten's reign, with no word of her thereafter. Conjectured causes included injury,

220-640: A coffinette bearing an inscription naming Queen Tiye proved a near perfect match to the hair of the 'Elder Lady'. DNA analysis confirmed that she was the daughter of Tiye's parents Yuya and Thuya . On 9 June 2003 archaeologist Joann Fletcher , a specialist in ancient hair from the University of York in England, announced that Nefertiti's mummy may have been the Younger Lady. This theory was criticised by Zahi Hawass and several other Egyptologists. In

275-589: A few years earlier than the conventional date of 1550 BC. The radiocarbon date range for its beginning is 1570–1544 BC, the mean point of which is 1557 BC. The pharaohs of Dynasty XVIII ruled for approximately 250 years (c. 1550–1298 BC). The dates and names in the table are taken from Dodson and Hilton. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes (designated KV). More information can be found on

330-615: A foreign origin. However, Tadukhipa was already married to Akhenaten's father and there is no evidence for any reason why this woman would need to alter her name in a proposed marriage to Akhenaten, nor any hard evidence of a foreign non-Egyptian background for Nefertiti. The exact dates when Nefertiti married Akhenaten and became the king's great royal wife are uncertain. They are known to have had at least six daughters together, including Meritaten , Meketaten , Ankhesenpaaten (later called Ankhesenamun when she married Tutankhamun), Neferneferuaten Tasherit , Neferneferure , and Setepenre . She

385-462: A husband... I am afraid. This proposal is considered extraordinary as New Kingdom royal women never married foreign royalty. Suppiluliuma I was understandably surprised and exclaimed to his courtiers: Nothing like this has happened to me in my entire life! Understandably, he was wary, and had an envoy investigate the situation, but by so doing, he missed his chance to bring Egypt into his empire. He eventually did send one of his sons, Zannanza , but

440-459: A large foreign tribute. The people of Kharu (the north) and Kush (the south) are shown bringing gifts of gold and precious items to Akhenaten and Nefertiti. In the tomb of Meryre II, Nefertiti's steward, the royal couple is shown seated in a kiosk with their six daughters in attendance. This is one of the last times princess Meketaten is shown alive. Two representations of Nefertiti that were excavated by Flinders Petrie appear to show Nefertiti in

495-447: A larger composition. Meketaten may have died in year 13 or 14. Nefertiti, Akhenaten, and three princesses are shown mourning her. The last dated inscription naming her and Akhenaten comes from a building inscription in the limestone quarry at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis. It dates to year 16 of the king's reign and is also the last dated inscription naming the king. Many scholars believe Nefertiti had a role elevated from that of great royal wife, and

550-595: A plague that was sweeping through the city, and a natural cause. This theory was based on the discovery of several ushabti fragments inscribed for Nefertiti (now located in the Louvre and the Brooklyn Museum). A previous theory that she fell into disgrace was discredited when deliberate erasures of monuments belonging to a queen of Akhenaten were shown to refer to Kiya instead. During Akhenaten's reign (and perhaps after), Nefertiti enjoyed unprecedented power. By

605-645: A secondary member of the Egyptian royal family line. Since Nefertiti was depicted as being as powerful as her husband in official monuments smiting Egypt's enemies, she might be the Dakhamunzu in the Amarna correspondence, as Nicholas Reeves believes. Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Several of Egypt's most famous pharaohs were from the Eighteenth Dynasty, including Tutankhamun , whose tomb

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660-427: A similar fashion to the previous female Pharaoh Hatshepsut , assumed the kingship under the name Pharaoh Neferneferuaten after her husband's death. She was then succeeded by Tutankhamun. It seems less possible that Nefertiti disguised herself as a male and assumed the male alter ego of Smenkhkare . According to Van Der Perre, Smenkhkare is thought to be a co-regent of Akhenaten who died before Neferneferuaten assumed

715-476: A subsequent research project led by Hawass, the mummy was put through CT scan analysis and DNA analysis. Researchers concluded that she is Tutankhamun's biological mother, an unnamed daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye, not Nefertiti. One of the two female mummies found in KV21 has been suggested as the body of Nefertiti. DNA analysis did not yield enough data to make a definitive identification but confirmed she

770-578: Is based on speculation and conjecture. It has also been proposed that Nefertiti was Akhenaten's full sister, though this is contradicted by her titles which do not include the title of "King's Daughter" or "King's Sister," usually used to indicate a relative of a pharaoh. Another theory about her parentage that gained some support identified Nefertiti with the Mitanni princess Tadukhipa , partially based on Nefertiti's name ("The Beautiful Woman has Come") which has been interpreted by some scholars as signifying

825-459: Is evidence of his return to the official worship of Amun , and abandonment of Amarna to return the capital to Thebes. In 2012, the discovery of an inscription dated to Year 16, month 3 of Akhet , day 15 of the reign of Akhenaten was announced. It was discovered within Quarry 320 in the largest wadi of the limestone quarry at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis. The five-line inscription, written in red ochre, mentions

880-491: Is known. In 1334 Akhenaten's son, Tutankhaten, ascended to the throne: shortly after, he restored Egyptian polytheist cult and subsequently changed his name in Tutankhamun , in honor to the Egyptian god Amun . His infant daughters, 317a and 317b mummies , represent the final genetically related generation of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The last two members of the Eighteenth Dynasty— Ay and Horemheb —became rulers from

935-516: Is the most likely candidate for a tomb begun for Nefertiti's exclusive use. Given that it lacks a burial chamber, she was not interred there either. In 2015, English archaeologist Nicholas Reeves announced that high resolution scans revealed voids behind the walls of Tutankhamun's tomb which he proposed to be the burial chamber of Nefertiti, but subsequent radar scans showed that there are no hidden chambers. In 1898, French archeologist Victor Loret found two female mummies among those cached inside

990-604: The Aten . In the tomb of the vizier Ramose , Nefertiti is shown standing behind Amenhotep IV in the Window of Appearance during the reward ceremony for the vizier. During the early years in Thebes, Akhenaten (still known as Amenhotep IV) had several temples erected at Karnak . One of the structures, the Mansion of the Benben (hwt-ben-ben), was dedicated to Nefertiti. She is depicted with her daughter Meritaten and in some scenes

1045-593: The Royal Tomb as laid out in the Boundary Stelae . It is possible that the unfinished annex of the Royal Tomb was intended for her use. However, given that Akhenaten appears to have predeceased her it is highly unlikely she was ever buried there. One shabti is known to have been made for her. The unfinished Tomb 29, which would have been of very similar dimensions to the Royal Tomb had it been finished,

1100-628: The tombs of the nobles in Amarna mention that Nefertiti had a sister, named Mutbenret . Further, a woman named Tey carried the title of "Nurse of the Great Royal Wife." In addition, Tey's husband Ay carried the title "God's Father." Some Egyptologists believe that this title was used for a man whose daughter married the pharaoh . Based on these titles, it has been proposed that Ay was in fact Nefertiti's father. However, neither Ay nor Tey are explicitly referred to as Nefertiti's parents in

1155-466: The 16th year of his [Akhenaten's] reign and, more importantly, that they were still holding the same positions as at the start of their reign. This makes it necessary to rethink the final years of the Amarna Period. This means that Nefertiti was alive in the second to last year of Akhenaten's reign, and demonstrates that Akhenaten still ruled alone, with his wife by his side. Therefore, the rule of

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1210-584: The Great Royal Palace in the centre of the city and possibly at the Northern Palace as well. Nefertiti and the rest of the royal family feature prominently in the scenes at the palaces and in the tombs of the nobles . Nefertiti's steward during this time was an official named Meryre II . He would have been in charge of running her household. Inscriptions in the tombs of Huya and Meryre II dated to Year 12, 2nd month of Peret, Day 8 show

1265-659: The Theban Mapping Project website. Several diplomatic marriages are known for the New Kingdom . These daughters of foreign kings are often only mentioned in cuneiform texts and are not known from other sources. The marriages were likely to have been a way to confirm good relations between these states. Setepenre (princess) Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include

1320-501: The area as Kush and it was administered by the Viceroy of Kush . The 18th dynasty obtained Nubian gold, animal skins, ivory, ebony, cattle, and horses, which were of exceptional quality. The Egyptians built temples throughout Nubia. One of the largest and most important temples was dedicated to Amun at Jebel Barkal in the city of Napata. This Temple of Amun was enlarged by later Egyptian and Nubian Pharaohs, such as Taharqa . After

1375-440: The early 20th century. Nefertiti had many titles, including: While modern Egyptological pronunciation renders her name as N e fertiti , her name was the sentence nfr.t jj.tj (or Nfr.t-jy.tj ), meaning "the beautiful one has come", and probably contemporarily pronounced Naftita from older Nafrat-ita or perhaps Nafert-yiti . Almost nothing is known about Nefertiti's life prior to her marriage to Akhenaten . Scenes from

1430-533: The end of the Hyksos period of foreign rule, the Eighteenth Dynasty engaged in a vigorous phase of expansionism, conquering vast areas of the Near-East , with especially Pharaoh Thutmose III submitting the "Shasu" Bedouins of northern Canaan , and the land of Retjenu , as far as Syria and Mittani in numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC. Radiocarbon dating suggests that Dynasty XVIII may have started

1485-465: The existing sources. At the same time, no sources exist that directly contradict Ay's fatherhood which is considered likely due to the great influence he wielded during Nefertiti's life and after her death. According to another theory, Nefertiti was the daughter of Ay and a woman besides Tey, but Ay's first wife died before Nefertiti's rise to the position of queen, whereupon Ay married Tey, making her Nefertiti's stepmother. Nevertheless, this entire proposal

1540-507: The extent of which can only be compared with those of the much longer reign of Ramesses II during Dynasty XIX. Amenhotep III's consort was the Great Royal Wife Tiye , for whom he built an artificial lake, as described on eleven scarabs. Amenhotep III may have shared the throne for up to twelve years with his son Amenhotep IV. There is much debate about this proposed co-regency, with different experts considering that there

1595-409: The female Amarna pharaoh known as Neferneferuaten must be placed between the death of Akhenaten and the accession of Tutankhamun. Neferneferuaten, this female pharaoh, specifically used the epithet 'Effective for her husband' in one of her cartouches, which means she was either Nefertiti or her daughter Meritaten (who was married to king Smenkhkare ). Nefertiti's burial was intended to be made within

1650-442: The fourth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV decided to move the capital to Akhetaten (modern Amarna). In his fifth year, Amenhotep IV officially changed his name to Akhenaten, and Nefertiti was henceforth known as Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti. The name change was a sign of the ever-increasing importance of the cult of the Aten . It changed Egypt's religion from a polytheistic religion to a religion which may have been better described as

1705-600: The greatest military pharaoh ever, also had a lengthy reign after becoming pharaoh. He had a second co-regency in his old age with his son Amenhotep II . Amenhotep II was succeeded by Thutmose IV , who in his turn was followed by his son Amenhotep III , whose reign is seen as a high point in this dynasty. Amenhotep III's reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity, artistic splendor, and international power, as attested by over 250 statues (more than any other pharaoh) and 200 large stone scarabs discovered from Syria to Nubia. Amenhotep III undertook large scale building programmes,

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1760-451: The kingship. If Nefertiti did rule Egypt as a Pharaoh, it has been theorized that she would have attempted damage control and may have re-instated the ancient Egyptian religion and the Amun priests. She would have raised Tutankhamun in the worship of the traditional gods. Archaeologist and Egyptologist Dr. Zahi Hawass theorized that Nefertiti returned to Thebes from Amarna to rule as

1815-429: The middle to later part of Akhenaten's reign 'after the exaggerated style of the early years had relaxed somewhat'. One is a small piece on limestone and is a preliminary sketch of Nefertiti wearing her distinctive tall crown with carving began around the mouth, chin, ear and tab of the crown. Another is a small inlay head (Petrie Museum Number UC103) modeled from reddish-brown quartzite that was clearly intended to fit into

1870-537: The presence of the "Great Royal Wife, His Beloved, Mistress of the Two Lands, Neferneferuaten Nefertiti". The final line of the inscription refers to ongoing building work being carried out under the authority of the king's scribe Penthu on the Small Aten Temple in Amarna. Van der Perre stresses that: This inscription offers incontrovertible evidence that both Akhenaten and Nefertiti were still alive in

1925-550: The prince died, perhaps murdered, en route. The identity of the queen who wrote the letter is uncertain. She is called Dakhamunzu in the Hittite annals, a translation of the Egyptian title Ta hemet nesu (The King's Wife). The possible candidates are Nefertiti, Meritaten , and Ankhesenamun . Ankhesenamun once seemed the likeliest, since there were no candidates for the throne on the death of her husband, Tutankhamun, whereas Akhenaten had at least two legitimate successors. But this

1980-430: The princess Meketaten participates as well. In scenes found on the talatat , Nefertiti appears almost twice as often as her husband. She is shown appearing behind her husband the pharaoh in offering scenes in the role of the queen supporting her husband, but she is also depicted in scenes that would have normally been the prerogative of the king. She is shown smiting the enemy, and captive enemies decorate her throne. In

2035-420: The ranks of officials in the royal court, although Ay might also have been the maternal uncle of Akhenaten as a fellow descendant of Yuya and Tjuyu . Ay may have married the widowed Great Royal Wife and young half-sister of Tutankhamun, Ankhesenamun , in order to obtain power; she did not live long afterward. Ay then married Tey , who was originally Nefertiti's wet-nurse. Ay's reign was short. His successor

2090-577: The reign of Tutankhamun, when the statue was made. The cartouches of King Ay, Tutankhamun's successor appearing on the statue, were an attempt by an artisan to "update" the sculpture. The Eighteenth Dynasty empire conquered all of Lower Nubia under Thutmose I . By the reign of Thutmose III , the Egyptians directly controlled Nubia to the Nile river, 4th cataract, with Egyptian influence / tributaries extending beyond this point. The Egyptians referred to

2145-419: The royal household. With her husband, she reigned at what was arguably the wealthiest period of ancient Egyptian history. After her husband's death, some scholars believe that Nefertiti ruled briefly as the female pharaoh known by the throne name, Neferneferuaten and before the ascension of Tutankhamun , although this identification is a matter of ongoing debate . If Nefertiti did rule as pharaoh, her reign

2200-506: The same was true of these mummies. A document was found in the ancient Hittite capital of Hattusa which dates to the Amarna period. The document is part of the so-called Deeds of Suppiluliuma I . While laying siege to Karkemish , the Hittite ruler receives a letter from the Egyptian queen. The letter reads: My husband has died and I have no son. They say about you that you have many sons. You might give me one of your sons to become my husband. I would not wish to take one of my subjects as

2255-416: The south up to Kanisah Kurgus beyond the fourth cataract of the Nile. Thutmose I was succeeded by Thutmose II and his queen, Hatshepsut , who was the daughter of Thutmose I. After her husband's death and a period of regency for her minor stepson (who would later become pharaoh as Thutmose III) Hatshepsut became pharaoh in her own right and ruled for over twenty years. Thutmose III , who became known as

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2310-472: The subject of debate within the academic community. Some state that Akhenaten created a monotheism, while others point out that he merely suppressed a dominant solar cult by the assertion of another, while he never completely abandoned several other traditional deities. Later Egyptians considered this " Amarna Period " an unfortunate aberration. After his death, Akhenaten was succeeded by two short-lived pharaohs, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten , of which little

2365-495: The throne next. Horemheb also died without surviving children, having appointed his vizier, Pa-ra-mes-su, as his heir. This vizier ascended the throne in 1292 BC as Ramesses I , and was the first pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty . This example to the right depicts a man named Ay who achieved the exalted religious positions of Second Prophet of Amun and High Priest of Mut at Thebes . His career flourished during

2420-560: The tomb of Amenhotep II in KV35 in the Valley of the Kings . These two mummies, known as ' The Elder Lady ' and ' The Younger Lady ', were identified as likely candidates of her remains. An article in KMT magazine in 2001 suggested that the Elder Lady might be Nefertiti. However, it was subsequently shown that the 'Elder Lady' is in fact Tiye , mother of Akhenaten. A lock of hair found in

2475-605: The twelfth year of his reign, there is evidence she may have been elevated to the status of co-regent: equal in status to the pharaoh, as may be depicted on the Coregency Stela . It is possible that Nefertiti is the ruler named Neferneferuaten. Some theorists believe that Nefertiti was still alive and held influence on the younger royals. If this is the case, that influence and presumably Nefertiti's own life would have ended by year 3 of Tutankhaten's reign (1331 BC). In that year, Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun. This

2530-426: Was Horemheb, a general during Tutankhamun's reign whom the pharaoh may have intended as his successor in case he had no surviving children, which is what came to pass. Horemheb may have taken the throne away from Ay in a coup d'état . Although Ay's son or stepson Nakhtmin was named as his father/stepfather's Crown Prince, Nakhtmin seems to have died during the reign of Ay, leaving the opportunity for Horemheb to claim

2585-454: Was a lengthy co-regency, a short one, or none at all. In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten ( ꜣḫ-n-jtn , "Effective for the Aten ") and moved his capital to Amarna , which he named Akhetaten. During the reign of Akhenaten, the Aten ( jtn , the sun disk) became, first, the most prominent deity, and eventually came to be considered the only god. Whether this amounted to true monotheism continues to be

2640-586: Was a member of the Eighteenth Dynasty royal line . CT-scanning revealed she was about 45 at the time of her death; her left arm had been bent over her chest in the 'queenly' pose. The possible identification is based on her association with the mummy tentatively identified as Ankhesenamun. It is suggested that just as a mother and daughter (Tiye and the Younger Lady) were found lying together in KV35,

2695-480: Was based on the assumption of a 27-year reign for the last 18th Dynasty pharaoh, Horemheb , who is now accepted to have had a shorter reign of only 14 years. This makes the deceased Egyptian king appear to be Akhenaten instead, rather than Tutankhamun. Furthermore, the phrase regarding marriage to 'one of my subjects' (translated by some as 'servants') is possibly either a reference to the Grand Vizier Ay or

2750-458: Was deified after she died. Ahmose was succeeded by his son, Amenhotep I , whose reign was relatively uneventful. Amenhotep I probably left no male heir and the next pharaoh, Thutmose I , seems to have been related to the royal family through marriage. During his reign, the borders of Egypt's empire reached their greatest expanse, extending in the north to Carchemish on the Euphrates and in

2805-496: Was discovered by Howard Carter in 1922. Other famous pharaohs of the dynasty include Hatshepsut (c. 1479 BC–1458 BC), the longest-reigning woman pharaoh of an indigenous dynasty, and Akhenaten (c. 1353–1336 BC), the "heretic pharaoh", with his Great Royal Wife , Nefertiti . The Eighteenth Dynasty is unique among Egyptian dynasties in that it had two queens regnant , women who ruled as sole pharaoh: Hatshepsut and Neferneferuaten , usually identified as Nefertiti. Dynasty XVIII

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2860-543: Was founded by Ahmose I , the brother or son of Kamose , the last ruler of the 17th Dynasty . Ahmose finished the campaign to expel the Hyksos rulers. His reign is seen as the end of the Second Intermediate Period and the start of the New Kingdom. Ahmose's consort, Queen Ahmose-Nefertari was "arguably the most venerated woman in Egyptian history, and the grandmother of the 18th Dynasty." She

2915-470: Was marked by the fall of Amarna and relocation of the capital back to the traditional city of Thebes . In the 20th century, Nefertiti was made famous by the discovery and display of her ancient bust , now in Berlin's Neues Museum . The bust is one of the most copied works of the art of ancient Egypt . It is attributed to the Egyptian sculptor Thutmose , and was excavated from his buried studio complex in

2970-478: Was once considered as a candidate for the mother of Tutankhamun, however a genetic study conducted on discovered mummies suggests that she was not. Nefertiti first appears in scenes in Thebes . In the damaged tomb ( TT188 ) of the royal butler Parennefer , the new king Amenhotep IV is accompanied by a royal woman, and this lady is thought to be an early depiction of Nefertiti. The king and queen are shown worshiping

3025-441: Was promoted to co-regent by her husband Pharaoh Akhenaten before his death. She is depicted in many archaeological sites as equal in stature to a King, smiting Egypt's enemies, riding a chariot , and worshipping the Aten in the manner of a pharaoh. When Nefertiti's name disappears from historical records, it is replaced by that of a co-regent named Neferneferuaten , who became a female Pharaoh. It seems likely that Nefertiti, in

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